tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-63064521727858875492024-03-13T06:05:42.777-07:00Music HistoryMark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comBlogger16125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-13178887308467700234314-01-05T14:41:00.000-08:002008-08-26T16:36:34.045-07:00Egyptian Old Kingdom (2686 BC) - Clarinet<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFuLtuz-NPpRy11fZU1h0iqV7YGuGStKZdMAgVoiKt1YZ5SVhNLz4rtHYmqUGB1wEXTcHqvgCDn73ZYjMzROJe21dcMEMlrynb_qBBw4FBcYhO4IaIadeF2eKufsguvlQpDeiaH514wco/s1600-h/000003Egyptsatellite-image-of-egypt.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFuLtuz-NPpRy11fZU1h0iqV7YGuGStKZdMAgVoiKt1YZ5SVhNLz4rtHYmqUGB1wEXTcHqvgCDn73ZYjMzROJe21dcMEMlrynb_qBBw4FBcYhO4IaIadeF2eKufsguvlQpDeiaH514wco/s400/000003Egyptsatellite-image-of-egypt.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5204064160447690482" border="0" /></a><br />Egypt is a country in North Africa. The Sinai Peninsula is part of Egypt, but forms a land bridge to Asia. Covering an area of about 1,001,450 square kilometers (386,660 sq mi), Egypt borders Libya to the west, Sudan to the south and the Gaza Strip and Israel to the east. The northern coast borders the Mediterranean Sea; the eastern coast borders the Red Sea.<br /><br />Egypt is one of the most populous countries in Africa and the Middle East. The great majority of its estimated 80,300,000 live near the banks of the Nile River, in an area of about 40,000 square kilometers (15,000 sq mi), where the only arable agricultural land is found. The large areas of the Sahara Desert are sparsely inhabited.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRlxwD87JAuiKt-ByqP6GVFdXSKJhGOPIKy-SQf71G8mZkIvEkRGy-16jTdPUCer3hgw22TMIDced_OHY3tjzZaXlMd5Qhwz62QX8mDhroNWPsnqWDtw8g1-Qz10WRf7z5FCgf9r60ANA/s1600-h/000003EgyptPyramidsAtGizaTwilight.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRlxwD87JAuiKt-ByqP6GVFdXSKJhGOPIKy-SQf71G8mZkIvEkRGy-16jTdPUCer3hgw22TMIDced_OHY3tjzZaXlMd5Qhwz62QX8mDhroNWPsnqWDtw8g1-Qz10WRf7z5FCgf9r60ANA/s400/000003EgyptPyramidsAtGizaTwilight.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5204065401693239042" border="0" /></a><br />Egypt is famous for its ancient civilization and some of the world's most famous monuments, including the Giza pyramid complex and its Great Sphinx. The southern city of Luxor contains numerous ancient artifacts, such as the Karnak Temple and the Valley of the Kings. Egypt is widely regarded as an important political and cultural nation of the Middle East.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcTq42YYpzhFJMRcL8gvAYB2yOaZeSB9G2KJO-HSH1BgI81qdkI9qoU962CyR60uqLnM741BFcRfScxjNfjQN6W9HTcLsprI8ARm-vobabfmw2XsVJD7CSef8CfJ0JNnMnKz2Zlkl1keo/s1600-h/000003EgyptBC2686hermopolis3.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgcTq42YYpzhFJMRcL8gvAYB2yOaZeSB9G2KJO-HSH1BgI81qdkI9qoU962CyR60uqLnM741BFcRfScxjNfjQN6W9HTcLsprI8ARm-vobabfmw2XsVJD7CSef8CfJ0JNnMnKz2Zlkl1keo/s400/000003EgyptBC2686hermopolis3.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5204069112544982818" border="0" /></a><br />In Egyptian mythology, the Ogdoad (Greek - the number eight) were eight deities worshipped in Hermopolis during what is called the Old Kingdom, the third through sixth dynasties, dated between 2,686 to 2,134 B.C. First it was a cult having Hathor and Ra; later changing to a cult where Hathor and Thoth were the main deities over a much larger number of deities; and even later, Ra was assimilated into Atum-Ra through a merger with Atum of the Ennead cosmogeny.<br /><br />The eight deities were arranged in four female-male pairs, the females were associated with snakes and the males were associated with frogs: Naunet and Nu, Amaunet and Amun, Kauket and Kuk, Huh and Hauhet. Apart from their gender, there was little to distinguish the female goddess from the male god in a pair; indeed, the names of the males are merely the male forms of the female name. Essentially, each pair represents the female and male aspect of one of four concepts, namely the primordial waters (Naunet and Nu), air or invisibility (Amunet and Amun), darkness (Kauket and Kuk), and eternity or infinite space (Hauhet and Huh).<br /><br />Together the four concepts represent the primal, fundamental state of the beginning, they are what always was. In the myth, however, their interaction ultimately proved to be unbalanced, resulting in the arising of a new entity. When the entity opened, it revealed Ra, the fiery sun, inside. After a long interval of rest, Ra, together with the other deities, created all other things.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAJv2qRYMsb7tRk66DeygvW3NAky-ZMQHsC3jrhCap98Jq4jmunrJmInAL4WXaHJ4Gj1rpwbGVIUL9sTfZBmhAYdLKnTV0nBHVJGq5XcniPYWhWlHFv42Ub-BX5vxq6h3_7NikUzOrloU/s1600-h/000003EgyptBC2686Thoth.svg.png"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgAJv2qRYMsb7tRk66DeygvW3NAky-ZMQHsC3jrhCap98Jq4jmunrJmInAL4WXaHJ4Gj1rpwbGVIUL9sTfZBmhAYdLKnTV0nBHVJGq5XcniPYWhWlHFv42Ub-BX5vxq6h3_7NikUzOrloU/s400/000003EgyptBC2686Thoth.svg.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5204070147632101170" border="0" /></a><br />Egyptian music has been an integral part of Egyptian culture since ancient times. The ancient Egyptians credited the god Thoth with the invention of music, which Osiris in turn used as part of his effort to civilize the world.<br /><script language="JavaScript" src="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/audio-player.js"></script><br /><object type="application/x-shockwave-flash" data="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/player.swf" id="audioplayer1" height="24" width="290"><br /><param name="movie" value="http://www.erlingwold.com/audio/player.swf"><br /><param name="FlashVars" value="playerID=1&soundFile=http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/Zummara Improvisation.mp3"><br /><param name="quality" value="high"><br /><param name="menu" value="false"><br /><param name="wmode" value="transparent"><br /></object><br /><br />[Egypt - <span style="font-style: italic;">Zummara Improvisation</span>]<br /><br />Thoth was considered one of the most important deities of the Egyptian pantheon, often depicted with the head of an Ibis. His feminine counterpart was Seshat.<br /><br />His chief shrine was at Khemennu, where he led the local pantheon, later renamed Hermopolis by the Greeks (in reference to him through the Greeks' interpretation that he was the same as Hermes).<br /><br />He was considered the heart and tongue of Ra as well as the means by which Ra's will was translated into speech.<br /><br />He has also been likened to the Logos of Plato and the mind of God.<br /><br />In the Egyptian mythology, he has played many vital and prominent roles, including being one of the two deities (the other being Ma'at) who stood on either side of Ra's boat.<br /><br />He has further been involved in arbitration, magic, writing, science, and the judging of the dead.<br /><br />The earliest material and representational evidence of Egyptian musical instruments dates to the Predyanstic period, but the evidence is more securely attested in the Old Kingdom when harps, flutes, and double clarinets were played.<br /><br />***<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjPA1TQ35gpXi_trDxFlBzk-cHh3l6kfANb_7YSSYXXTzH5dEY4SiJR28rKlqR7gD_1mAbKqhWEExwp4nGbXKOoymF-dSmt_9TriifGkF-AKkQjmZ52Cf9ZlsNBMayRtFygCzIHGMyugng/s1600-h/000003EgyptDoubleClarinetZummaraancient-egypt-.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhjPA1TQ35gpXi_trDxFlBzk-cHh3l6kfANb_7YSSYXXTzH5dEY4SiJR28rKlqR7gD_1mAbKqhWEExwp4nGbXKOoymF-dSmt_9TriifGkF-AKkQjmZ52Cf9ZlsNBMayRtFygCzIHGMyugng/s400/000003EgyptDoubleClarinetZummaraancient-egypt-.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213145758129638690" border="0" /></a><br />[Zummara]<br /><br />The term double clarinet refers to any of several woodwind instruments consisting of two parallel pipes made of cane, bird bone, or metal, played simultaneously, with a single reed for each. Commonly, there are five or six tone holes in each pipe, or holes in only one pipe while the other acts as a drone, and the reeds are either cut from the body of the instrument or created by inserting smaller, slit tubes into the ends of the pipes. The player typically uses circular breathing.<br /><br />Double clarinets are found primarily in Middle Eastern music, but also in India; there are different versions and names in different countries. In Yemen, the double clarinet is called a mizmār (a word used for other types of instruments in other countries). More common terms are zamr, zammāra, arghūl, and mijwiz. The first two of these names have the same linguistic root as mizmār.<br /><br />In Albania the instrument is called a zumare. It has five holes in each pipe, and a bell.<br /><br />In Egypt the instrument is known as a zummāra. Both tubes are about thirty to thirty-five centimetres long; one may have four to six holes while the other has none and acts as a drone, or both can have holes. Its range is very limited, about a fourth.<br /><br />The arghūl is primarily an Egyptian instrument, having a melody pipe with five to seven holes and a longer drone pipe without holes. It occurs in several sizes. In one specimen the melody and drone pipes are about 80 and 240 centimetres long, respectively, though the drone has removable sections to alter its pitch.<br /><br />The Iraqi double clarinet is also called a zummāra, although this term also is used for a single-tube simple clarinet. It is similar to the Syrian mijwiz.<br /><br />In Morocco and Tunisia the instrument, called zamr, has a single or double bell. The Moroccan instrument has six holes in each pipe. The Moroccan mizmār or zamr rīfī is over 100 centimetres long, again with six holes in each pipe, ending in two bull's horns.<br /><br />The double clarinet in Syria, western Iraq, Lebanon, northern Israel, and Jordan is called a mijwiz. It is about thirty centimetres long, typically with six holes for each tube. Melodies are played in unison on both pipes, often with one pipe tuned slightly higher than the other to produce acoustic beats.<br /><br />The Yemeni instrument is called a mizmār. It is attached to the player's mouth using a muzzle.<br /><br />In Italy, the Sicilian zampogna bagpipe, also called a "ciaramedda," is additionally referred to as a "doppio clarinetto" (double clarinet), because of its two equal length single reed chanters.<br /><br />Double clarinet might refer to an organ stop, also known as the bass clarinet or bass clarionet. ("Double" is here used in the old-fashioned sense of a double-length and hence lower-pitched version of an instrument, e.g. "double bassoon" meaning contrabassoon.)<br /><br />Concertos for two clarinets are known as double clarinet concertos.<br /><br />[Egyptian New Kingdom / 4314 Egyptian New Kingdom / Huang-Ti]Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-18753155832712220744303-05-20T00:22:00.000-07:002008-08-26T16:33:38.798-07:00Huang-Ti (2697 - 2598 BC) (Mythological)<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp2.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDKAdL7ixEI/AAAAAAAAElo/FSgAinuhgRM/s1600-h/000005ChinaBC2697HuangdiYellow_Emperor.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp2.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDKAdL7ixEI/AAAAAAAAElo/FSgAinuhgRM/s400/000005ChinaBC2697HuangdiYellow_Emperor.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5202361758473438274" border="0" /></a><br />[Haung-Ti with a nice hat!]<br /><br />Huang-Ti, or the Yellow Emperor, was a legendary Chinese sovereign and cultural hero who is considered in mythology to be the ancestor of all Han peoples. One of the legendary Five Emperors, it was written in the <span style="font-style: italic;">Shiji</span> by historian Sima Qian (145 BC-90 BC) that the Huang-Ti reigned from 2697 BC to 2598 BC (pre-dating China's earliest Shang Dynasty, c. 1766-1122 BC). He emerged as a chief deity of Taoism during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD). The legend of his victory in the war against Emperor Chi You at the Battle of Zhuolu is seen as the establishment of the Han Chinese nationality.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp1.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDJ_g77ixDI/AAAAAAAAElg/t5zHWh8AEQ0/s1600-h/000005ChinaBC2697bamboo_wuchen.lg.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp1.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDJ_g77ixDI/AAAAAAAAElg/t5zHWh8AEQ0/s400/000005ChinaBC2697bamboo_wuchen.lg.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5202360723386319922" border="0" /></a><br />Ling Lun (his name meaning "musician" and "to measure") was sent by Huang-Ti, in the first year of his reign, to the western mountains to cut bamboo pipes (lu) from which fundamental pitches could be made. The Chinese found (as did the Ancient Greeks) that 12 distinct pitches could be generated -- some more and some less in tune to modern ears. Indeed, an infinite number of pitches can be generated, but eventually the ear cannot distinguish the microtonal differences. The Chinese, via a system of pitches generated by fifth relations, had 365 pitches -- one for each day of the year!<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp1.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDKES77ixFI/AAAAAAAAElw/4NSiLdxRleQ/s1600-h/000005ChinaBC2697Birds.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp1.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDKES77ixFI/AAAAAAAAElw/4NSiLdxRleQ/s400/000005ChinaBC2697Birds.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5202365980426290258" border="0" /></a><br />In legend, Ling Lun gave the emperor flutes tuned to the sounds of birds, which is said to be the foundation of Chinese traditional music.<br /><script language="JavaScript" src="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/audio-player.js"></script><br /><object type="application/x-shockwave-flash" data="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/player.swf" id="audioplayer1" height="24" width="290"><br /><param name="movie" value="http://www.erlingwold.com/audio/player.swf"><br /><param name="FlashVars" value="playerID=1&soundFile=http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/China_ Autumn Moon.mp3"><br /><param name="quality" value="high"><br /><param name="menu" value="false"><br /><param name="wmode" value="transparent"><br /></object><br /><br />[China - <span style="font-style: italic;">Autumn Moon </span>(ensemble music)]<br /><br />Chinese flutes come in various types. They include<br /><br />Dizi (and its varieties such as the bangdi; all transverse flutes, usually made of bamboo)<br /><br />Xiao (end-blown vertical bamboo flute)<br /><br />Gudi, an ancient vertical flute made from the bones of large birds<br /><br />Paixiao (pan pipes)<br /><br />Koudi (a very tiny bamboo flute)<br /><br />Xun (clay ocarina)<br /><br />Chinese flutes are generally made from bamboo and belong to the bamboo classification of Chinese music, although they can be (and have been) made of other materials such as jade.<br /><br />[4214 Egyptian Old Kingdom / 4303 Hung-ti / 4200 I Ching Ch'inMark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-83957291739951127154200-01-05T19:47:00.000-08:002008-08-26T16:27:15.184-07:00Fu Hsi (2800-2737 BC) - I Ching, Ch'in<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3gB2FisTR1-bu9TK3FD3sUC8JEMe_JnQBcNmCJVDYoDQRlfFgjWL0KioaWt6pCXAWo-TTGsG3jSuaz2VMfKZlV_s6DvlfyB9Sk6DilwU6YDxLMJFgcwl0fTqX0sGNs07ZX0atjithIpY/s1600-h/000005ChinaBC2900Nuwa&fuxi.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3gB2FisTR1-bu9TK3FD3sUC8JEMe_JnQBcNmCJVDYoDQRlfFgjWL0KioaWt6pCXAWo-TTGsG3jSuaz2VMfKZlV_s6DvlfyB9Sk6DilwU6YDxLMJFgcwl0fTqX0sGNs07ZX0atjithIpY/s400/000005ChinaBC2900Nuwa&fuxi.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5204516420503960194" border="0" /></a>[Nuwa and Fu Hsi]<br /><br />In Chinese mythology, Fu Hsi (c. 2850 BC) was the first of the mythical Three Sovereigns of Ancient China. He is a culture hero reputed to be the inventor of writing, fishing, trapping, and the ch'in zither.<br /><script language="JavaScript" src="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/audio-player.js"></script><br /><object type="application/x-shockwave-flash" data="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/player.swf" id="audioplayer1" height="24" width="290"><br /><param name="movie" value="http://www.erlingwold.com/audio/player.swf"><br /><param name="FlashVars" value="playerID=1&soundFile=http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/The Strumming of an Old Man in a Refined State.mp3"><br /><param name="quality" value="high"><br /><param name="menu" value="false"><br /><param name="wmode" value="transparent"><br /></object><br /><br />[China - <span style="font-style: italic;">The Strumming of an Old Man in a Refined State of Intoxication</span>]<br /><br />Fu Xi was born on the lower-middle reaches of the Yellow River in a place called Chengji (possibly modern Lantian, Shaanxi or Tianshui, Gansu).<br /><br />According to legend the land was swept by a great flood and only Fuxi and his sister Nüwa survived. They retired to Kunlun Mountain where they prayed for a sign from the Emperor of Heaven. The divine being approved their union and the siblings set about procreating the human race. It was said that in order to speed up the procreation of humans, Fu Hsi and Nüwa find an additional way by using clay to create human figures, and with the power divine being entrusted to them, they made the clay figures to come alive.<br /><br />Fu Hsithen came to rule over his descendents although reports of his long reign vary between sources from 115 years (2852-2737 BC) to 116 years (2952-2836 BC).<br /><br />He lived for 197 years altogether and died at a place called Chen (modern Huaiyang, Henan) where his mausoleum can still be found.<br /><br />During the time of his predecessor Nüwa (who according to some sources was also his wife and/or sister), society was matriarchal and primitive. Childbirth was seen to be miraculous not requiring the participation of the male and children only knew their mothers. As the reproductive process became better understood ancient Chinese society moved towards a patriarchal system and Fu Xi assumed primary importance.<br /><br />In the beginning there was as yet no moral or social order. Men knew their mothers only, not their fathers. When hungry, they searched for food; when satisfied, they threw away the remnants. They devoured their food hide and hair, drank the blood, and clad themselves in skins and rushes. Then came Fu Hsi and looked upward and contemplated the images in the heavens, and looked downward and contemplated the occurrences on earth. He united man and wife, regulated the five stages of change, and laid down the laws of humanity. He devised the eight trigrams, in order to gain mastery over the world.<br /><br />Fu Hsi taught his subjects to cook, to fish with nets, and to hunt with weapons made of iron. He instituted marriage and offered the first open air sacrifices to heaven. A stone tablet, dated to AD 160 shows Fu Hsi with Nüwa, who was both his wife and his sister.<br /><br />Traditionally, Fu Hsi is considered the originator of the <span style="font-style: italic;">I Ching</span> which work is attributed to his reading of the He Map (or the Yellow River Map). According to this tradition, Fu Hsi had the arrangement of the trigrams of the <span style="font-style: italic;">I Ching</span> revealed to him supernaturally. This arrangement precedes the compilation of the <span style="font-style: italic;">I Ching</span> during the Zhou dynasty. Fu Hsi is said to have discovered the arrangement in markings on the back of a mythical dragon-horse (sometimes said to be a turtle) that emerged from the river Luo. This discovery is also said to have been the origin of calligraphy.<br /><br />***<br /><br />The <span style="font-style: italic;">I Ching</span>, also called <span style="font-style: italic;">Book of Changes </span>or <span style="font-style: italic;">Classic of Changes</span> is one of the oldest of the Chinese classic texts. The book consists of two parts. The "basic text" of the Changes, which took form sometime in the early Zhou dynasty (122-256 BC), consists of 64 six-line divinatory symbols known as hexagrams, each of which has a name that refers to a physical object, an activity, a state, a situation, a quality, an emotion, or a relationship. In addition, each hexagram possesses a short, cryptic description of several words, called a "judgment," and a brief written interpretation for each line of each hexagram, known as a line statement. The line statements, which are read from the bottom of the hexagram upward, describe the development of the situation epitomized by the hexagram name and the judgment. In the process of divination, the person consulting the text evaluates not only the judgment and line statements but also the relationship of the constituent trigrams (three-line symbols, also called gua) for insights into the issue under consideration, and what to do about it. Over time, a great many different systems developed for analyzing the relationship of hexagrams, trigrams and individual lines.<br /><br />During the late Zhou period, a set of appendices known as the <span style="font-style: italic;">Ten Wings</span> -- attributed to Confucius--became permanently attached to the "basic text," and so the work received imperial sanction in 136 BC as one of the five major "Confucian" classics. This second part of the book articulated the Yijing's implicit cosmology and invested the classic with a new and powerfully attractive literary flavor and style. The world view of this amplified version of the Changes emphasized correlative thinking, a humane cosmological outlook, and a fundamental unity and resonance between Heaven, Earth and Man. It also stressed the pervasive notion of yinyang complementarity, cyclical movement and ceaseless alternation. These amplifications and explanations of the "basic text" have had enormously important consequences in many realms of Chinese culture, from the Han period to the present.<br /><br />Fu Hsi was reputed to have had the eight trigrams revealed to him supernaturally (By the time of the legendary Yu (2194–2149 BC), the trigrams had supposedly been developed into 64 hexagrams ( lìu shí sì gùa),<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi61szUUyxdNhNCyAmMrrdc7T_IkOAcjIjhJHO1xhg4aJZ_YdcZqrMZt-1mL0KZnmEi9v_kbvNIUwGp292yFDJR6KPq06_L3BaZEgdxPWvkmzPFBg2vbZ_fau3PY8V5HTRjNL0AH0s2AUk/s1600-h/000005ChinaMountains.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi61szUUyxdNhNCyAmMrrdc7T_IkOAcjIjhJHO1xhg4aJZ_YdcZqrMZt-1mL0KZnmEi9v_kbvNIUwGp292yFDJR6KPq06_L3BaZEgdxPWvkmzPFBg2vbZ_fau3PY8V5HTRjNL0AH0s2AUk/s400/000005ChinaMountains.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5204522137105431202" border="0" /></a><br />which were recorded in the scripture Lian Shan, meaning “continuous mountains.”<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1LgnepSeyarRZV7NEDIU5pafLxoY_2g8yN1K3fVLJ61zUNgaOnQW1p4SxeCIFSwRI1ZPlKTUm8r-FgCTkwHM-ZsI03bvBXFVTF5Y_AcNftdgHBCi8uFuw0rzRZDaeY-BNHt_jUDBjHIw/s1600-h/000005ChinaBC2800FuXIIChingTrigrams2.svg.png"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1LgnepSeyarRZV7NEDIU5pafLxoY_2g8yN1K3fVLJ61zUNgaOnQW1p4SxeCIFSwRI1ZPlKTUm8r-FgCTkwHM-ZsI03bvBXFVTF5Y_AcNftdgHBCi8uFuw0rzRZDaeY-BNHt_jUDBjHIw/s400/000005ChinaBC2800FuXIIChingTrigrams2.svg.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5204520852910209682" border="0" /></a><br />[The eight trigrams]<br /><br />The solid line represents yang, the creative principle. The open line represents yin, the receptive principle. These principles are also represented in a common circular symbol (☯), known as taijitu, but more commonly known in the west as the yin-yang diagram, expressing the idea of complementarity of changes: when Yang is at top, Yin is increasing, and the reverse.<br /><br />The <span style="font-style: italic;">I Ching</span> has influenced countless Chinese philosophers, artists and even businesspeople throughout history. In more recent times, several Western artists and thinkers have used it in fields as diverse as psychoanalysis, music, film, drama, dance, eschatology, and fiction writing.<br /><br />During most of its history, the <span style="font-style: italic;">I Ching</span> was only known in China. It was introduced to the West in the late 19th Century. A translation by Richard Wilhelm, into German was subsequently translated into English by Cary F. Baynes. Another translation, by James Legge has also held wide popularity in the West. Since the early 20th Century the <span style="font-style: italic;">I Ching</span> has been influential in fields as diverse as psychoanalysis and popular culture. Some of those influenced are the following:<br /><br />Niels Bohr included the Tai Chi symbol in his coat of arms, when knighted, to reflect his appreciation for the <span style="font-style: italic;">I Ching</span>'s use of probabilistic concepts in its handling of physical, social, and psychological phenomena.<br /><br />Carl Jung developed his theory of synchronicity based upon the<span style="font-style: italic;"> I Ching.</span><br /><br />John Cage used the <span style="font-style: italic;">I Ching</span> to decide the arrangements of many of his compositions.<br /><br />Andrew Culver uses vast quantities of chance operations to generate compositional events and structures, and whose simulation of the coin-tossing oracle called ic is available freely online at anarchicharmony.org.<br /><br />Merce Cunningham uses the <span style="font-style: italic;">I Ching</span> and chance operations to decide the arrangement of many of his dances.<br /><br />The ABC soap opera Dark Shadows at one point featured a copy of the <span style="font-style: italic;">I Ching </span>and yarrow sticks amongst its many mystical plot elements.<br /><br />George Harrison of the Beatles read the <span style="font-style: italic;">I Ching</span> and decided he should surrender to chance. Following this, in his words, he "picked up a book at random, opened it, saw 'gently weeps,' then laid the book down again and started the song" (<span style="font-style: italic;">While My Guitar Gently Weeps</span>).<br /><br /><span style="font-style: italic;">Chapter 24</span> from Pink Floyd's first album, <span style="font-style: italic;">The Piper at the Gates of Dawn,</span> written by Syd Barrett, features lyrics adapted from the I<span style="font-style: italic;"> Ching</span>. <span style="font-style: italic;">Set the Controls for the Heart of the Sun</span> from <span style="font-style: italic;">A Saucerful of Secrets</span> is also based on the work.<br /><br />Hermann Hesse's novel <span style="font-style: italic;">The Glass Bead Game</span> (1943) is mainly concerned with the principles of the <span style="font-style: italic;">I Ching.</span><br /><br />***<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDp0WwS3T5sGB1Wa_ZLf2SROETzFn2J3az09emol0baByWGlq2AjYI8ZHgkwlqp6PUtkJQK2P53SwSHsEy0suSzD9K0UfOQrvp3WP773VzrBsG47M5LJhOsiPT4Xa2x9VVAYI6eKE4GO4/s1600-h/000005ChinaChin.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhDp0WwS3T5sGB1Wa_ZLf2SROETzFn2J3az09emol0baByWGlq2AjYI8ZHgkwlqp6PUtkJQK2P53SwSHsEy0suSzD9K0UfOQrvp3WP773VzrBsG47M5LJhOsiPT4Xa2x9VVAYI6eKE4GO4/s400/000005ChinaChin.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5204528313268402866" border="0" /></a><br /><br />Fu Hsi is also credited with the invention of the ch'in, together with the later Three Sovereigns Shennong and Huang Ti.<br /><br />The ch'in has been played since ancient times, and has traditionally been favored by scholars and literati as an instrument of great subtlety and refinement, as highlighted by the quote "a gentleman does not part with his ch'in or se without good reason," as well as being associated with the ancient Chinese philosopher Confucius (September 28, 551 -479 BC). It is sometimes referred to by the Chinese as "the father of Chinese music" or "the instrument of the sages."<br /><br />The ch'in is a very quiet instrument, with a range of about four octaves, and its open strings are tuned in the bass register. Its lowest pitch is about two octaves below middle C, or the lowest note on the cello. Sounds are produced by plucking open strings, stopped strings, and harmonics. The use of glissando -- sliding tones -- gives it a sound reminiscent of a pizzicato cello or fdouble bass. The qin is also capable of over 119 harmonics, of which 91 are most commonly used. By tradition the ch'in originally had five strings, but ancient ch'in-like instruments with 10 or more strings have been found. The modern form has been standardized for about 2,000 year.<br /><br />In 1977, a recording of <span style="font-style: italic;">Flowing Water</span> (<span style="font-style: italic;">Liu Shui</span>, as performed by Guan Pinghu, one of the best qin players of the 20th century) was chosen to be included in the Voyager Golden Record, a gold-plated LP recording containing music from around the world, which was sent into outer space by NASA on the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecrafts. It is the longest excerpt included on the disc. In 2003, kuchin music was proclaimed as one of the Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity by UNESCO.<br /><br />The music of the ch'in can be categorized as three distinctively different "sounds." The first is san yin: "scattered sounds." This is produced by plucking the required string to sound an open note.<br /><br />The second is fan yin, or "floating sounds." These are harmonics, in which the player lightly touches the string with one or more fingers of the left hand at a position indicated by the hui dots, pluck and lift, creating a crisp and clear sound.<br /><br />The third is an yin, or "stopped sounds." This forms the bulk of most qin pieces and requires the player to press on a string with a finger or thumb of the left hand until it connects with the surface board, then pluck. Afterwards, the musician's hand often slides up and down, thereby modifying the pitch.<br /><br />According to the book, <span style="font-style: italic;">Cunjian Guqin Zhifa Puzi Jilan</span>, there are around 1,070 different finger techniques used for the qin, with or without names. It is therefore, the instrument with the most finger techniques in either Chinese or Western music. Most are obsolete, but around 50 or so are sufficient to know in modern practice.<br /><br />According to tradition, the ch'in originally had five strings, representing the five elements of metal, wood, water, fire and earth. Later, in the Zhou dynasty, Zhou Wen Wang added a sixth string to mourn his son, Bo Yihou. His successor, Zhou Wu Wang, added a seventh string to motivate his troops into battle with the Shang.<br /><br />The entire length of the ch'in (in Chinese measurements) is 3 chi, 6 cun and 5 fen; representing the 365 days of the year.<br /><br />The kuchin is nearly always used a solo instrument, as its quietness of tone means that it cannot compete with the sounds of most other instruments or an ensemble. It can, however, be played together with a xiao (end-blown bamboo flute), with other ch'in, or played while singing. In old times, the se (a long zither with movable bridges and 25 strings, similar to the Japanese koto) was frequently used in duets with the ch'in. Sadly, the se has not survived into this century, though duet tablature scores for the instruments are preserved. Lately there has been a trend to use other instruments to accompany the ch'in, such as the xun (ceramic ocarina), pipa (four-stringed pear-shaped lute), dizi (transverse bamboo flute), and others for more experimental purposes.<br /><br />The Japanese ichigenkin, a monochord zither, is believed to be derived from the qin. The qin handbook Lixing Yuanya (1618) includes some melodies for a one-string ch'in, and the Wuzhi Zhai Qinpu contains a picture and description of such an instrument. The modern ichigenkin apparently first appeared in Japan just after that time. However, the honkyoku (standard repertoire) of the ichigenkin today most closely resembles that of the shamisen.<br /><br />The Korean geomungo may also be related, albeit distantly. Korean literati wanted to play an instrument the way their Chinese counterparts played the ch'in. For some reason they never took to the ch'in itself, instead playing the geomungo, a long fretted zither plucked with a thin stick. The repertoire was largely the geomungo parts for melodies played by the court orchestra. It should be noted that another ancient Chinese zither, the zhu, was likely plucked with a stick, so the komungo may also be related to that instrument.<br /><br />[4302 Huang-ti / 4200 I Ching Ch'in / 3500 Iraq Harmonics]Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-44599954348655146613500-01-09T01:52:00.001-08:002012-08-28T17:00:30.345-07:00Iraq (c. 3500 BC) - Bass - Harmonics - Quality<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUWuZ6E0At1hf1OZ01n88c-4SsazPudV7IGNoNxC66MR0R0aLFiApcIGnA8iH0msyKblK-kWPpVCVhNM97CNbLx5mSjMgCe6ZVfzhkwvTTVbefU06gFVs_BCLBEXTh0IonciX03XoHZ7k/s1600-h/000008Iraqsatellite-image-of-iraq.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUWuZ6E0At1hf1OZ01n88c-4SsazPudV7IGNoNxC66MR0R0aLFiApcIGnA8iH0msyKblK-kWPpVCVhNM97CNbLx5mSjMgCe6ZVfzhkwvTTVbefU06gFVs_BCLBEXTh0IonciX03XoHZ7k/s400/000008Iraqsatellite-image-of-iraq.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5205351332081534002" border="0" /></a><br />Iraq is a country in Western Asia spanning most of the northwestern end of the Zagros mountain range, the eastern part of the Syrian Desert and the northern part of the Arabian Desert.<br /><script language="JavaScript" src="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/audio-player.js"></script><br /><object type="application/x-shockwave-flash" data="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/player.swf" id="audioplayer1" height="24" width="290"><br /><param name="movie" value="http://www.erlingwold.com/audio/player.swf"><br /><param name="FlashVars" value="playerID=1&soundFile=http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/The Passion of 1001 Nights.mp3"><br /><param name="quality" value="high"><br /><param name="menu" value="false"><br /><param name="wmode" value="transparent"><br /></object><br /><br />[Iraq - <span style="font-style: italic;">The Passion of 1,001 Nights</span> (inspired by collection of tales dating back c. AD 800-900)]<br /><br />It shares borders with Kuwait and Saudi Arabia to the south, Jordan to the west, Syria to the northwest, Turkey to the north, and Iran to the east. It has a very narrow section of coastline at Umm Qasr on the Persian Gulf. There are two major flowing rivers: the Tigris and the Euphrates. These provide Iraq with agriculturally capable land and contrast with the desert landscape that covers most of Western Asia.<br /><br />Iraq's rich history dates back to ancient Mesopotamia. The region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers is identified as the cradle of civilization and the birthplace of writing.<br /><br />The region of Iraq was historically known as Mesopotamia (Greek: "between the rivers"). It was home to the world's first known civilization, the Sumerian culture, followed by the Akkadian, Babylonian, and Assyrian cultures, whose influence extended into neighboring regions as early as 5000 BC. These civilizations produced some of the earliest writing and some of the first sciences, mathematics, laws and philosophies of the world; hence its common epithet, the "Cradle of Civilization."<br /><br />Ancient Mesopotamia was settled and conquered by numerous ancient civilizations. Dates for events in ancient Mesopotamia are still controversial, and several different methods and standards of dating exist for the Chronology of the ancient Near East; therefore, all dates are only estimates.<br /><br />Mesopotamia has been home to some of the oldest major civilizations, including the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. Mesopotamia as a distinct and self-determining cultural region began with the rise of the first cities in southern Mesopotmia ca. 5300 BC, and ended with the Persian conquest in 539 BC.<br /><br />The Fertile Crescent was inhabited with several distinct, flourishing cultures between the end of the last ice age (c. 10,000 BC) and the beginning of history. One of the oldest known Neolithic sites in Mesopotamia is Jarmo, settled around 7000 BC and broadly contemporary with Jericho (in the Levant) and Çatal Hüyük (in Anatolia). It as well as other early Neolithic sites, such as Samarra and Tell Halaf were in northern Mesopotamia; later settlements in southern Mesopotamia required complicated irrigation methods. The first of these was Eridu, settled during the Ubaid period culture by farmers who bought with them the Samarran culture from the north. This was followed by the Uruk period and the emergence of the Sumerians.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtgyB9Ik3g04WNpeIGqBnANMdOUy7RPH4_K3LZVdUbHWkYJBsLLYvpgpATv3nwUDwJskYSbK0YtaQhb9gZD18peQxH3jXESqspsgDLntf7PBqtJaw_WnavIJ6Pv-6FqeSTnvW0vOW-jW0/s1600-h/000008IraqStandard_of_Ur_chariots.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhtgyB9Ik3g04WNpeIGqBnANMdOUy7RPH4_K3LZVdUbHWkYJBsLLYvpgpATv3nwUDwJskYSbK0YtaQhb9gZD18peQxH3jXESqspsgDLntf7PBqtJaw_WnavIJ6Pv-6FqeSTnvW0vOW-jW0/s400/000008IraqStandard_of_Ur_chariots.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5205352130945451074" border="0" /></a><br />The Sumerians were firmly established in Mesopotamia by the middle of the 4th millennium BC, in the archaeological Uruk period, although scholars dispute when they arrived.<br /><br />It is hard to tell where the Sumerians might have come from because the Sumerian language is a language isolate, unrelated to any other known language. Their mythology includes many references to the area of Mesopotamia but little clue regarding their place of origin, perhaps indicating that they had been there for a long time. The Sumerian language is identifiable from its initially logographic script which arose last half of the 4th millenium BC. Sumer is known as the Cradle of civilization.<br /><br />By the 3rd millennium BC, these urban centers had developed into increasingly complex societies. Irrigation and other means of exploiting food sources were being used to amass large surpluses, huge building projects were being undertaken by rulers, and political organization was becoming evermore sophisticated.<br /><br />Throughout the millennium , the various city-states Kish, Uruk, Ur and Lagash vied for power and gained hegemony at various times. Nippur and Ngirsu were important religious centers, as was Eridu at this point. This was also the time of Gilgamesh, a semi-historical king of Uruk, and the subject of the famous Epic of Gilgamesh.<br /><br />It is during this period that the potter's wheel was developed into the vehicular- and mill wheel.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJu4d1eoU4Xrv_Ju-4o7KK84k8x-JPFNH18CZEWcxdVtCChArz5POO1MbqB7zuv8okTQw_5dTIyAH6btMR-afwd1LqFYtoBmfZP6XiBMukTSVAeRIh0lfHopDkNvhEJmdzwr5XF-girug/s1600-h/000008Iraqhanging_gardens_ruins.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJu4d1eoU4Xrv_Ju-4o7KK84k8x-JPFNH18CZEWcxdVtCChArz5POO1MbqB7zuv8okTQw_5dTIyAH6btMR-afwd1LqFYtoBmfZP6XiBMukTSVAeRIh0lfHopDkNvhEJmdzwr5XF-girug/s400/000008Iraqhanging_gardens_ruins.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5205353342126228562" border="0" /></a><br />[Ruins of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon]<br /><br />Babylon is a city of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq, about 85 kilometers (55 mi) south of Baghdad.<br /><br />All that remains today of the ancient famed city of Babylon is a mound, or tell, of broken mud-brick buildings and debris in the fertile Mesopotamian plain between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in Iraq. Historical resources inform us that Babylon was in the beginning a small town that had sprung up by the beginning of the third millennium BC (the dawn of the dynasties). The town flourished and attained prominence and political repute with the rise of the first Babylonian dynasty.<br /><br />In the Bible, Babylon appears as Babel, interpreted by Book of Genesis 11:9 to mean "confusion" (of languages), from the verb balbal, "to confuse."<br /><br />The earliest source to mention Babylon may be a dated tablet of the reign of Sargon of Akkad (ca. 24th century). The so-called "Weidner Chronicle" states that it was Sargon himself who built Babylon "in front of Akkad." Another chronicle likewise states that Sargon "dug up the dirt of the pit of Babylon, and made a counterpart of Babylon next to Agade."<br /><br />***<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIstpip25yiAFwt3MJX5cE41viabQmBcTYNw1dpzw-o-izn3DQEGt7eSXNHdqEMYqua3sytVeQXwcjBaEvy9MpyU1Y1hywd0sUVAmHtzG18ovS46pCLBqEJyLG0hN5zC-C3H9fvmNGxKCU/s1600-h/900Gregorian_chant_clefs.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIstpip25yiAFwt3MJX5cE41viabQmBcTYNw1dpzw-o-izn3DQEGt7eSXNHdqEMYqua3sytVeQXwcjBaEvy9MpyU1Y1hywd0sUVAmHtzG18ovS46pCLBqEJyLG0hN5zC-C3H9fvmNGxKCU/s400/900Gregorian_chant_clefs.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213125592073350610" border="0" /></a><br />There are two other clefs used in music -- the C clef (used fairly rarely) and the F clef, both shown in early Gregorian chant forms above)<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnJtwr4evPwUHhm9ujVeU97WtfMP-L53M7TpDOeGGJka9MNZejr7SVN9RuTbmf668HNOfQ5Y-jro4xyUxVP29wzCZc408ug_h0DtzYNfpwyUo_hw9LdKmfvTIUwd4g_9Yc1fhN466V0_6m/s1600-h/000005BassClefOldbassclef.svg.png"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjnJtwr4evPwUHhm9ujVeU97WtfMP-L53M7TpDOeGGJka9MNZejr7SVN9RuTbmf668HNOfQ5Y-jro4xyUxVP29wzCZc408ug_h0DtzYNfpwyUo_hw9LdKmfvTIUwd4g_9Yc1fhN466V0_6m/s400/000005BassClefOldbassclef.svg.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213126226890296130" border="0" /></a><br />The F-clef was, until fairly recently, written as above.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKOv6EYNlIKvWqNGRHTd0LARoUFk5ej6nXF_nQEtQzJapm2zQaBTH3GVINsv2DIIky_RFsX9hakvFiw85dAuv05hJ4W20Lqi9Zic2dtK8Xfoo39WKZ-0JTq_HAkYQMwzutpww1baLQSb_4/s1600-h/000005bass-clef-notes.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKOv6EYNlIKvWqNGRHTd0LARoUFk5ej6nXF_nQEtQzJapm2zQaBTH3GVINsv2DIIky_RFsX9hakvFiw85dAuv05hJ4W20Lqi9Zic2dtK8Xfoo39WKZ-0JTq_HAkYQMwzutpww1baLQSb_4/s400/000005bass-clef-notes.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213126815638887330" border="0" /></a><br />[The names of the spaces and lines in bass clef -- the higher B is just below middle C]<br /><br />When the F-clef is placed on the fourth line, it is called the "bass clef." This is the only F-clef used today, so that the terms "F-clef" and "bass clef" are often regarded as synonymous.<br /><br />This clef is used for the cello, euphonium, double bass, bass guitar, bassoon, contrabassoon, trombone, tuba, and timpani; for the lower part of keyboard instruments like the piano, organ, marimba and harpsichord (of which the upper part is usually written in treble clef); and for the lowest notes of the horn; and the baritone and bass voices.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnRM_-AzsJLEqzph-iZZQBu0essxtTCsBgT4MoVOntBjbEUxOqpbaIzPtMT7I2yEzISEByFxCbWMykOUbsD7T48dKsyCj8-3Xf7KEQMeU85KwKYAOPTGB-TqkeNj1zX3j0QI62s7OkvPfr/s1600-h/000005BassClefSpacesLinesMnemonics.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnRM_-AzsJLEqzph-iZZQBu0essxtTCsBgT4MoVOntBjbEUxOqpbaIzPtMT7I2yEzISEByFxCbWMykOUbsD7T48dKsyCj8-3Xf7KEQMeU85KwKYAOPTGB-TqkeNj1zX3j0QI62s7OkvPfr/s400/000005BassClefSpacesLinesMnemonics.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213130626210659378" border="0" /></a><br />The mnemonics for bass clef spaces and lines are "all cows eat grass" (or fairly non-scientifically, "all cars eat gas" -- a lot of it, these days...) and "good boys do fine always" (or "good boys don't fool around"... or even...hm...something to do with animals....).<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIvLJQ0EB10iQqAP2YOHjMR8oTOG2NXg5jt32MLQyVgaM7S93T4EDz2fM4wLfBEVWV7jPzyhjJJQ4ApJ4I8N44SSPFt5Uv4vhRtMnHJvlR-QVS6yX_WIN_KmvJcb5YqH5pmUqIRnN1bDh0/s1600-h/000005BassAndTreble.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgIvLJQ0EB10iQqAP2YOHjMR8oTOG2NXg5jt32MLQyVgaM7S93T4EDz2fM4wLfBEVWV7jPzyhjJJQ4ApJ4I8N44SSPFt5Uv4vhRtMnHJvlR-QVS6yX_WIN_KmvJcb5YqH5pmUqIRnN1bDh0/s400/000005BassAndTreble.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213128917473622818" border="0" /></a>[Relationship between notes in Bass and Treble Clefs]<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhn7Jg_9hmeSBJW6aRqls5qLMdaJOQ3QhT9MRR2LTzWtGjNQJJE2wU1AtWHm2XvQduBiRXKFKzw-NRTyUj8VAQUXbrBnQOpAxw3Yj1aFXCFoAuFU625OUXwX_7ecip1R61x8lZP7x65AumX/s1600-h/000005CClefAlto_clef_with_note.svg.png"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhn7Jg_9hmeSBJW6aRqls5qLMdaJOQ3QhT9MRR2LTzWtGjNQJJE2wU1AtWHm2XvQduBiRXKFKzw-NRTyUj8VAQUXbrBnQOpAxw3Yj1aFXCFoAuFU625OUXwX_7ecip1R61x8lZP7x65AumX/s400/000005CClefAlto_clef_with_note.svg.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213128484223402402" border="0" /></a>When the C-clef is placed in the middle of the staff, it is called the alto clef. The middle of what looks like the "three" indicates the position of middle C.<br /><br />This clef (sometimes called the viola clef) is currently used for the viola, the viola da gamba, and the alto trombone.<br /><br />Formerly, it was used for the alto voice and by instruments playing a middle part (oboes, recorders, etc.) It occasionally turns up in keyboard music to the present day (Brahms's <span style="font-style: italic;">Organ Chorales</span>, John Cage's <span style="font-style: italic;">Dream</span> for piano).<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoG2f1el64LnWmvX_NfE-W-73V0gbbm9EiaHyAZw4nHrkMupy_KAX-1QnAFWp6_8CERn1D0T651mNhx6_cl02dHkUPIe5WLAAkJPlK9baRfGfSDWUHuEQjFYEJ_5JvOAR119vsD3PHguS1/s1600-h/000005CClefTenor_clef_with_note.svg.png"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgoG2f1el64LnWmvX_NfE-W-73V0gbbm9EiaHyAZw4nHrkMupy_KAX-1QnAFWp6_8CERn1D0T651mNhx6_cl02dHkUPIe5WLAAkJPlK9baRfGfSDWUHuEQjFYEJ_5JvOAR119vsD3PHguS1/s400/000005CClefTenor_clef_with_note.svg.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213132319921148738" border="0" /></a>When the C-clef is placed such that its midsection is on the fourth line (from the bottom) of the staff, it is called the tenor clef.<br /><br />This clef is used for the upper ranges of the bassoon, violoncello, euphonium, double bass, and trombone (which all use the bass clef in their lower and middle ranges, and in their extreme high ranges, the treble clef as well). Formerly, it was used by the tenor part in vocal music but its use has been largely supplanted either with an octave version of the treble clef when written alone or the bass clef when combined on one staff with the bass part.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTcY6nDhcaofzKKpMX7XLqCRHpRrVtbaHnAyH2udMwvr4CREYeJHnineD1jjq4gLeI5is11e2uYyJjSf6qBT5Z49B1RaNkXTSnlVsvhYrJrAn2gUJTc2FDB3ZBd1ydktWveIg8vAXZ-cGb/s1600-h/000005All_clefs.svg.png"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgTcY6nDhcaofzKKpMX7XLqCRHpRrVtbaHnAyH2udMwvr4CREYeJHnineD1jjq4gLeI5is11e2uYyJjSf6qBT5Z49B1RaNkXTSnlVsvhYrJrAn2gUJTc2FDB3ZBd1ydktWveIg8vAXZ-cGb/s400/000005All_clefs.svg.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213132872851850098" border="0" /></a>In former days, the three clefs (G, C, and F) were placed at a variety of pitch levels -- mercifully, this practice has largely died out. A typical musican can get away with an active knowledge of treble and bass clefs (meaning memorized) and a passive knowledge of alto and tenor (that one can figure out the notes in a short time interval)<br /><br /><br />***<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsTpQ0_xePS-SXmjqMwK2i3pcuWpTkZAv084zKrXowC5sDTSq1rqpziYCxMx6Sjze6GhKICc5cGsNamlL-J764iAnf2vvSEJ2WJg2UKyyQecYzB_HafeqDOO8oASgD1lpMRWyxI3FWgT8/s1600-h/000009pythagtuning2.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsTpQ0_xePS-SXmjqMwK2i3pcuWpTkZAv084zKrXowC5sDTSq1rqpziYCxMx6Sjze6GhKICc5cGsNamlL-J764iAnf2vvSEJ2WJg2UKyyQecYzB_HafeqDOO8oASgD1lpMRWyxI3FWgT8/s400/000009pythagtuning2.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5205354755170468962" border="0" /></a><br />Pythagorean tuning is a system of musical tuning in which the frequency relationships of all intervals are based on the ratio 3:2. Its name comes from medieval texts which attribute its discovery to Pythagoras, but its use has been documented as long ago as 3500 B.C. in Babylonian texts.<br /><br />It is the oldest way of tuning the 12-note chromatic scale and, as such, it is the basis for (although distinct from) many other methods of tuning, such as the common equal temperament. 53 equal temperament is closely related to Pythagorean tuning because it is extremely similar to a very extended Pythagorean cycle of fifths.<br /><br />Pythagorean tuning is based on a stack of perfect fifths, each tuned in the ratio 3:2, the next simplest ratio after 2:1, which is the ratio of an octave. The two notes G and D, for example, are tuned so that their frequencies are in the ratio 3:2 -- if G is tuned to 200 Hz, then the D is tuned to 300 Hz. The A a fifth above that D is also tuned in the ratio 3:2 -- with the D at 300 Hz, this puts the A at 450 Hz, 9:4 above the original G. When describing tunings, it is usual to speak of all notes as being within an octave of each other, and as this A is over an octave above the original G, it is usual to halve its frequency to move it down an octave. Therefore, the A is tuned to 225 Hz, a 9:8 above the G. The E a 3:2 above that A is tuned to the ratio 27:16 and so on, until the starting note, G, is arrived at again.<br /><br />In applying this tuning to the chromatic scale, however, a problem arises: no number of 3:2s will fit exactly into an octave. Because of this, the G arrived at after twelve fifths is about a quarter of a semitone sharper than the G used to begin the process. The table below (starting at E flat) illustrates this, showing the note name, the ratio above D, and the value in cents above the D for each note in the chromatic scale. The cent values of the same notes in equal temperament are also given for comparison (marked in the table below as "et-Cents").<br /><br />In order to keep the ratios in this table relatively simple, fifths are tuned down from D as well as up. The first note in the circle of fifths given here is E flat (equivalent to D#), from which five perfect fifths are tuned before arriving at D, the nominal unison note.<br /><br />Note Ratio Cents et-Cents Interval<br /><br />Eb 256:243 90.22 100 minor second<br /><br />Bb 128:81 792.18 800 minor sixth<br /><br />F 32:27 294.13 300 minor third<br /><br />C 16:9 996.09 1000 minor seventh<br /><br />G 4:3 498.04 500 perfect fourth<br /><br />D 1:1 0 0 unison<br /><br />A 3:2 701.96 700 perfect fifth<br /><br />E 9:8 203.91 200 major second<br /><br />B 27:16 905.87 900 major sixth<br /><br />F# 81:64 407.82 400 major third<br /><br />C# 243:128 1109.78 1100 major seventh<br /><br />G# 729:512 611.73 600 augmented fourth<br /><br />[D#] [2187:2048] [113.69] [100] [augmented unison]<br /><br />In equal temperament, and most other modern tunings of the chromatic scale, pairs of enharmonic notes such as E flat and D sharp are thought of as being the same note -- however, as the above table indicates, in Pythagorean tuning, they theoretically have different ratios, and are at a different frequency. This discrepancy, of about 23.5 cents, or one quarter of a semitone, is known as a Pythagorean comma.<br /><br />To get around this problem, Pythagorean tuning uses the above 12 notes from E flat to G sharp shown above, and then places above the G sharp another E flat, starting the sequence again. This leaves the interval G#—Eb sounding badly out of tune, meaning that any music which combines those two notes is unplayable in this tuning. A very out of tune interval such as this one is known as a wolf interval. In the case of Pythagorean tuning, all the fifths are 701.96 cents wide, in the exact ratio 3:2, except the wolf fifth, which is only 678.49 cents wide, nearly a quarter of a semitone flatter.<br /><br />If the notes G# and Eb need to be sounded together, the position of the wolf fifth can be changed (for example, the above table could run from A to E, making that the wolf interval instead of Eb to G#). However, there will always be one wolf fifth in Pythagorean tuning, making it impossible to play in all keys in tune.<br /><br />Because of the wolf interval, this tuning is rarely used nowadays, although it is thought to have been widespread. In music which does not change key very often, or which is not very harmonically adventurous, the wolf interval is unlikely to be a problem, as not all the possible fifths will be heard in such pieces.<br /><br />Because fifths in Pythagorean tuning are in the simple ratio of 3:2, they sound very "smooth" and consonant. The thirds, by contrast, which are in the relatively complex ratios of 81:64 (for major thirds) and 32:27 (for minor thirds), sound less smooth. For this reason, Pythagorean tuning is particularly well suited to music which treats fifths as consonances, and thirds as dissonances. In western classical music, this usually means music written prior to the 15th century. As thirds came to be treated as consonances, so meantone temperament, and particularly quarter comma meantone, which tunes thirds to the relatively simple ratio of 5:4, became more popular. However, meantone still has a wolf interval, so is not suitable for all music.<br /><br />***<br /><br />Unisons, fourths, and fifths may be perfect, augmented, or diminished.<br /><br />0 steps = P1<br />1/2 step = m2<br />1 step = M2<br />1 1/2 steps = m3<br />2 steps = M3<br /><br />A fourth that contains 2 1/2 steps is called a perfect fourth<br /><br />2 1/2 steps = P4<br /><br />An interval involving 3 steps can be called a tritone<br /><br />3 steps = Tritone<br /><br />(This "evil-sounding"/"unrestful"/dissonant" interval has been known as the "Diabolus in Musica"/"Devil in Music," which can be spelled as an augmented fourth [A4], when involving four letter names, or a diminished fifth [d5] when involving five)<br /><br />A fifth that contains 3 1/2 steps is called a perfect fifth<br /><br />3 1/2 steps = P5<br /><br />***<br /><br />The tritone (tri- or three and tone) is a musical interval that spans three whole tones. The tritone is the same as an augmented fourth, which in 12-tone equal temperament is enharmonic to a diminished fifth. It is often used as the main interval of dissonance in Western harmony, and is important in the study of musical harmony.<br /><br />Writers often use the term tritone to mean specifically half of an octave from a given tone, without regard to what system of tuning it may belong to. Two tritones add up to six whole tones, which in meantone temperament is a diesis less than an octave, but in equal temperament, where the diesis is tempered out, it is equal to a perfect octave. A common symbol for tritone is TT. It is also sometimes called a tritonus, the name used in German.<br /><br />The tritone occurs naturally between the 4th and 7th scale degrees of the major scale (for example, from F to B in the key of C major).<br /><br />Compared to other commonly occurring intervals like the major second or the minor third, the augmented fourth and the diminished fifth (both two valid enharmonic interpretations of the tritone) are considered awkward intervals to sing. Western composers have traditionally avoided using it explicitly in their melody lines, often preferring to use passing tones or extra note skipping instead of using a direct leap of an augmented fourth or diminished fifth in their melodies. However, as time went by, composers have gradually used the tritone more and more in their music, disregarding its awkwardness and exploiting its expressiveness.<br /><br />The tritone is a restless interval, classed as a dissonance in Western music from the early Middle Ages through the end of the common practice period. This interval was frequently avoided in medieval ecclesiastical singing because of its dissonant quality. The first explicit prohibition of it seems to occur with<br /><br />"the development of Guido of Arezzo's Hexacordal system which made B flat a diatonic note, namely as the 4th degree of the hexachordal on F. From then until the end of Renaissance the tritone, nicknamed the "diabolus in musicā" was regarded as an unstable interval and rejected as a consonance,"<br /><br />The name diabolus in musica ("the Devil in music") has been applied to the interval from at least the early 18th century. Georg Philipp Telemann in 1733 notes that "mi contra fa ... welches die alten den Satan in der Music nenneten" ("mi against fa, which the ancients called 'Satan in music'"), while Johann Mattheson in 1739 writes that the "alten Solmisatores dieses angenehme Intervall mi contra fa oder den Teufel in der Music genannt haben" ("older singers with solmization called this pleasant interval 'mi contra fa' or 'the devil in music'"). Although both of these authors cite the association with the devil as from the past, there are no known citations of this term from the Middle Ages, as is commonly asserted.<br /><br />However Denis Arnold, in the referential <span style="font-style: italic;">The New Oxford Companion to Music</span>, suggests that the nickname was already applied early in the medieval music itself:<br /><br />"It seems first to have been designated as a 'dangerous' interval when Guido of Arezzo developed his system of hexachords and with the introduction of B flat as a diatonic note, at much the same time acquiring its nickname of 'Diabolus in Musica' ('the devil in music')."<br /><br />Because of that original symbolic association with the devil and its avoidance, this interval came to be heard in Western cultural convention as suggesting an "evil" connotative meaning in music. Today the interval continues to suggest an "oppressive," "scary," or "evil" sound.<br /><br />However, suggestions that singers were excommunicated or otherwise punished by the Church for invoking this interval are likewise fanciful. At any rate, avoidance of the interval for musical reasons has a long history, stretching back to the parallel organum of the <span style="font-style: italic;">Musica Enchiriadis</span>.<br /><br />In all these expressions, including the commonly cited "mi contra fa est diablous in musica", the "mi" and "fa" refer to notes from two adjacent hexachords. For instance, in the tritone B-F, B would be "mi", that is the third scale degree in the "hard" hexachord beginning on G, while F would be "fa", that is the fourth scale degree in the "natural" hexachord beginning on C.<br /><br />Later in history with the rise of the Baroque and Classical music era, that interval came to be perfectly accepted, but yet was used in a specific controlled way, notably through the principle of the tension/release mechanism of the tonal system. In that system (which is the fundamental musical grammar of Baroque and Classical music), the tritone is one of the defining intervals of the dominant-seventh chord and two tritones separated by a minor third give the fully-diminished seventh chord its characteristic sound. In minor, the diminished triad (comprising two minor thirds which together add up to a tritone) appears on the second scale degree, and thus features prominently in the progression iio-V-i. Often, the inversion iio6 is used to move the tritone to the inner voices as this allows for stepwise motion in the bass to the dominant root. In three-part counterpoint, free use of the diminished triad in first inversion is permitted, as this eliminates the tritone relation to the bass.<br /><br />It is only with the Romantic music and modern classical music that composers started to use it totally freely, without functional limitations notably in an expressive way to exploit the evil connotations which are culturally associated to it (e.g., Liszt's use of the tritone to suggest hell in his Dante Sonata). The tritone was also exploited heavily in that period as an interval of modulation for its ability to evoke a strong reaction by moving quickly to distantly related keys. Later on, in twelve-tone music, serialism, and other 20th century compositional idioms it came to be considered as a neutral interval.<br /><br />In some analyses of the works of 20th century composers, the tritone plays an important structural role; perhaps the most noted is the axis system, proposed by Ernő Lendvai, in his analysis of the use of tonality in the music of Béla Bartók. Tritones play prominent roles in the music of George Crumb.<br /><br />Antonio Vivaldi uses the tritone in the movement <span style="font-style: italic;">Gratias Agimus Tibi </span>in the bass part for <span style="font-style: italic;">Gloria in Excelsis Deo.</span><br /><br />The beginning of Act II in Beethoven's opera <span style="font-style: italic;">Fidelio</span>, where the timpani are tuned a tritone apart, to A and E-flat, instead of the usual perfect fifths, to set the mood for the dark dungeon.<br /><br />Liszt's <span style="font-style: italic;">Dante Sonata</span> prominently utilizes tritones.<br /><br />Saint-Saëns literally made the tritone "the Devil in music" in <span style="font-style: italic;">Danse Macabre</span>. In it, the violin soloist uses scordatura, tuning the top string down a half step (from E to E-flat). This creates a tritone with the open A string, giving the sound of Death tuning his fiddle for the dance.<br />Rimsky-Korsakov uses the tritone in the opening theme of the first movement of Scheherazade (Bb to E) to depict the evil sultan.<br /><br />The tritone plays a major role in Jean Sibelius's <span style="font-style: italic;">Symphony No. 3 in C Major</span>, op. 52, and even more so in the dark and austere <span style="font-style: italic;">Symphony No. 4 in A minor</span>, op. 63.<br /><br />Claude Debussy's <span style="font-style: italic;">Ce qu'a vu le vent d'Ouest</span> exploits tritones throughout the entire piece.<br /><br />The tritone is the very foundational interval of the new harmonic language Alexander Scriabin developed in the latter half of his career, and dozens of his pieces from about Op. 30 onwards either use successive chords with roots a tritone apart, or use the tritone itself as a prominent interval in many chords. This tritone relationship evolved into a full substitute in this new language for the traditional tonic-dominant tonal relationship, to the extent that the tritone interval became a consonance in Scriabin's usage, not needing resolution.<br /><br /><span style="font-style: italic;">Mars -- The Bringer of War</span>, the first movement from Gustav Holst's suite <span style="font-style: italic;">The Planets</span>, uses the tritone as an effect to describe the horrors of warfare.<br /><br />Carl Ruggles’s <span style="font-style: italic;">Sun Treader </span>uses the tritone prominently in its non-Schoenberian atonal polyphonic syntax, usually alternating either with the perfect fourth or fifth.<br /><br />Alban Berg -- in<span style="font-style: italic;"> Wozzeck:</span> Act I, Scene 3 -- ends the interlude after Marie's lullaby with a bass tritone oscillation, altered from previous perfect fourths, to presage the return of her soon-to-be-cuckolded common-law husband.<br /><br />The tritone of C and F-sharp is a prominent interval in Benjamin Britten's <span style="font-style: italic;">War Requiem</span>, signifying the theme of conflict and reconciliation.<br /><br />Tritones play prominent roles in the music of George Crumb, including the opening trombone trio glissandi in <span style="font-style: italic;">Echoes of Time and the River</span>, the opening soprano ornamentation and closing drones of <span style="font-style: italic;">Ancient Voices of Children</span>, the motivic structure of <span style="font-style: italic;">Night of the Electric Insects</span> and <span style="font-style: italic;">Devil Music</span> from <span style="font-style: italic;">Black Angels,</span> the evocations of whales and Richard Strauss in <span style="font-style: italic;">Vox Balaenae</span>, and the tritone transposition of <span style="font-style: italic;">Spiral Galaxy</span> from <span style="font-style: italic;">Makrokosmos, Volume I</span>.<br /><br />Black Sabbath's guitarist Tony Iommi used a tritone as the entire basis for his song <span style="font-style: italic;">Black Sabbath</span>. He plays a tritone exclusively until halfway through the song.<br /><br />The introduction and the main riff for most of Metallica's <span style="font-style: italic;">Harvester of Sorrow</span> gets its menacing sound from the tritone.<br /><br />Nu metal band Korn uses tritone in great amount in its works especially on their first album <span style="font-style: italic;">Korn</span>.<br /><br />Thrash metal band Slayer's 1998 album is entitled <span style="font-style: italic;">Diabolus in Musica</span> and the song <span style="font-style: italic;">Bitter Peace </span>features the tritone.<br /><br />The intro to the song <span style="font-style: italic;">Purple Haze</span> by the Jimi Hendrix Experience uses a tritone in which Hendrix plays a B-flat octave while bassist Noel Redding plays an E octave.<br /><br />The intro to the song <span style="font-style: italic;">YYZ</span> by Rush uses the tritone C-F-sharp several times over before entering the main riff.<br /><br />The intro to the song <span style="font-style: italic;">Last Entertainmen</span>t by the Swiss technical Thrash Metal band Coroner uses an A-D-flat tritone.<br /><br />The intro to the song <span style="font-style: italic;">Charlie</span> by Red Hot Chili Peppers uses a series of tritones: F-B, B-F, B-flat-E, and E-B-flat.<br /><br />Many King Crimson songs (for example, Red) make extensive use of tritones.<br /><br />One of the intro riffs in the song <span style="font-style: italic;">As I Am</span> by Dream Theater uses the C-F-sharp tritone.<br /><br />Buckethead makes extensive use of tritones in his rapid solos to give them a "robotic" and "unnatural" feel.<br /><br />Mr. Bungle frequently uses tritones inits music so much to the point that the double tritone chord was informally named the Mr. Bungle chord.<br /><br />Primus makes frequent use of tritones throughout their music, one of the most notable ones being <span style="font-style: italic;">Jerry Was A Race Car Driver</span>.<br /><br />Marilyn Manson's song <span style="font-style: italic;">Beautiful People</span> uses the tritone throughout all of the song.<br /><br />Keith Emerson uses a tritone in the intro to Emerson, Lake & Palmer's <span style="font-style: italic;">The Barbarian</span>.<br /><br />Spanish band <span>Mago de oz</span> (<span>Wizard of Oz</span>) in their album Gaia II features the song <span style="font-style: italic;">Diabuls in musica </span>as a way to invoke the devil to the real word; the tritone features in the song also.<br /><br /><span style="font-style: italic;">West Side Story</span>, the musical by Leonard Bernstein, uses the tritone throughout as part of a characteristic motif that appears almost everywhere in the music. For instance, it opens the song <span style="font-style: italic;">Maria</span>, and becomes the bassline for <span style="font-style: italic;">Cool</span>.<br /><br />The theme to the Fox Television series <span style="font-style: italic;">The Simpsons</span> features a tritone prominently throughout, most notably in the bassline.<br /><br />[4200 Fu Hsi / 3500 Iraq / 2000 China]Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-28593668962414040992000-01-03T20:09:00.000-08:002010-08-13T17:57:58.862-07:00China (c. 7000 BC) - Bone Flutes - Intervals<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp1.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDJD877iw_I/AAAAAAAAElA/c4uJJMTYFis/s1600-h/000005Chinabc7030BCflutes-wColor.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp1.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDJD877iw_I/AAAAAAAAElA/c4uJJMTYFis/s400/000005Chinabc7030BCflutes-wColor.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5202295233724990450" border="0" /></a><br />Gudi ("Bone Flutes") are the oldest known musical instruments from China dating back to around 7000 BC.<br /><script language="JavaScript" src="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/audio-player.js"></script><br /><object type="application/x-shockwave-flash" data="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/player.swf" id="audioplayer1" height="24" width="290"><br /><param name="movie" value="http://www.erlingwold.com/audio/player.swf"><br /><param name="FlashVars" value="playerID=1&soundFile=http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/China_ Dizi.mp3"><br /><param name="quality" value="high"><br /><param name="menu" value="false"><br /><param name="wmode" value="transparent"><br /></object><br /><br />[China - <span style="font-style: italic;">Dizi</span> (Flute) (Recent Recording)]<br /><br /><object height="325" width="400"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/4o4fH8z3jDQ?fs=1&hl=en_US"><param name="allowFullScreen" value="true"><param name="allowscriptaccess" value="always"><embed src="http://www.youtube.com/v/4o4fH8z3jDQ?fs=1&hl=en_US" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" allowscriptaccess="always" allowfullscreen="true" height="325" width="400"></embed></object><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp3.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDJI-b7ixBI/AAAAAAAAElQ/vmscdcCxlXU/s1600-h/000005ChinaYellow_river_-_A._Holdrinet.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp3.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDJI-b7ixBI/AAAAAAAAElQ/vmscdcCxlXU/s400/000005ChinaYellow_river_-_A._Holdrinet.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5202300757052933138" border="0" /></a><br />[Yellow River - considerably upstream from Jiahu]<br /><br />In 1986, these bone flutes were excavated from an early neolithic tomb in Jiahu, a Neolithic Yellow River settlement<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp1.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDJIY77ixAI/AAAAAAAAElI/NKBgPC1fUbo/s1600-h/000005China00001SatelliteMap.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp1.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDJIY77ixAI/AAAAAAAAElI/NKBgPC1fUbo/s400/000005China00001SatelliteMap.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5202300112807838722" border="0" /></a><br />based in the central plains of ancient China, modern Wuyang, Henan Province. Archaeologists consider the site to be one of the earliest examples of the Peiligang culture. Settled from 7000 to 5800 BC, the site was later flooded and abandoned. The settlement at Jiahu was surrounded by a moat and covered an area of 55,000 square metres. Discovered by Zhu Zhi in 1962, extensive excavation of the site did not occur until much later. Most of the site has still not yet been excavated.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp3.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDJLZb7ixCI/AAAAAAAAElY/kXsGnhPLSVU/s1600-h/000005ChinaBC7000Crane_japan2.JPG.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp3.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDJLZb7ixCI/AAAAAAAAElY/kXsGnhPLSVU/s400/000005ChinaBC7000Crane_japan2.JPG.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5202303419932656674" border="0" /></a><br />The average size of the bone flute is approximately 20 cm long and 1.1 cm in diameter, and the bone flutes are made from the wings of the red-crowned crane.<br /><br />The Red-Crowned Crane (Grus japonensis), also called the Japanese Crane or Manchurian Crane, is a large crane and is the second rarest crane in the world. In East Asia, it is known as a symbol of luck and fidelity. At 55 inches high, the crane does not make easy prey, for all that it stands out in its natural habitat of marshes and swamps. When it matures, the Red-crowned Crane is snow white with a patch of red skin on its head. This patch of skin becomes bright red when the crane becomes angry or excited. This species is the heaviest crane, typically 17-22 pounds, although large Sarus Cranes are taller. The maximum weight a male Red-Crowned Crane is 33 pounds.<br /><br />In Japan, this crane, known as tancho, is said to live 1000 years. A pair of Red-crowned Cranes were used in the design for the D series of the 1000 yen note. In the Ainu language, the Red-crowned Crane is known as sarurun kamui or marsh kamui.<br /><br />In China, the Red-crowned Crane is often featured in myths and legends. In Taoism, the Red-crowned Crane is a symbol of longevity and immortality. In art and literature, immortals are often depicted riding on cranes. A mortal who attains immortality is similarly carried off by a crane. Reflecting this association, Red-crowned Cranes are called xian he, or fairy crane. The Red-crowned Crane is also a symbol of nobility. Depictions of the crane have been found in Shang Dynasty tombs and Zhou Dynasty ceremonial bronzeware. A common theme in later Chinese art is the reclused scholar who cultivates bamboo and keeps cranes.<br /><br />The open-ended bone flutes have a variety of number of holes, ranging from one to eight holes (in the latter case, seven in front and one in back). The bone whistles are much shorter with lengths from 5.7 cm to 10.5 cm long with only a couple of holes. Lee and Shen believed that the Chinese understood the "resonance of an air column" and were able to create an instrument that contained their "complete interval preference of Chinese music." Blowing into an end-blown bone flutes produces the same effect as blowing into a glass bottle. It was also believed that the eight open holes flute could play "all harmonic intervals and two registers."<br /><br />These harmonic intervals are said to be a "function of culture" and were of a larger set compared to the West. Bone flutes were also used for sacrificial purposes as well as bird hunting. Gudi are not very common now, but there are still people who continue to use these flutes for their music.<br /><br />***<br /><br />The number of an interval is determined by counting the number of degrees between the two notes beginning with one for the lower note (i.e. the total number of letter names involved from the lower note to the higher). The number of degrees between C and G for example is 5 (CDEFG -- five letter names or 12345 -- five scale degrees), therefore the interval is a fifth.<br /><br />The name of any interval is further qualified using the terms such as perfect, major, and minor.<br /><br />This is called its interval quality.<br /><br />A perfect unison occurs between notes of the same pitch, a distance of zero half steps.<br /><br />0 steps = P1 (Perfect Unison)<br /><br />A second that contains a half step is called a minor second.<br /><br />1/2 step = m2 (Minor Second)<br /><br />A second that contains a whole step is called a major second<br /><br />1 step = M2 (Major Second)<br /><br />A third that contains 1 1/2 steps is called a minor third<br /><br />1 1/2 steps = m3 (Minor Third)<br /><br />A third that contains 2 steps is called a major third<br /><br />2 steps = M3 (Major Third)<br /><br />***<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcSPkNNt2QZlLZLc26ZCIs8GfKGtZPP55-SEYJFoADLckLvA9S54MdVGQ3YrYM0Zf3xZJqM9PgJslENqG53m0ynXWjjQix6gx2PChmCi5dUmuaehbAaYT1moIBIxJyvzGqCw84SQvYMRaV/s1600-h/000005ChinaPentatonicC_major_pentatonic_scale.PNG.png"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjcSPkNNt2QZlLZLc26ZCIs8GfKGtZPP55-SEYJFoADLckLvA9S54MdVGQ3YrYM0Zf3xZJqM9PgJslENqG53m0ynXWjjQix6gx2PChmCi5dUmuaehbAaYT1moIBIxJyvzGqCw84SQvYMRaV/s400/000005ChinaPentatonicC_major_pentatonic_scale.PNG.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213077041722384770" border="0" /></a><br />Ethnomusicology commonly classifies pentatonic scales as either anhemitonic or hemitonic.<br /><br />Anhemitonic scales do not contain half steps.<br /><br />The Chinese C major pentatonic scale contains only major seconds and minor thirds between adjacent notes.<br /><br />C - D - E - G - A - C<br /><br />M2 M2 m3 M2 m3<br /><br />[3500 Iraq / 2000 China Flutes / 1998 Yurok California]<br /><minor 3rd="" but=""></minor>Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-6885676829692838201998-01-25T09:27:00.000-08:002011-06-12T23:57:11.809-07:00Yurok California (c. 8000 BC) - Scale - Texture<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOXS-pm9O9SEW73Yrh7GSDEd6uGPoDle_GeeZjTSchd7Tu0gjD_5SO5OaS7RPL4ORJtf0Ra9ygDJkDwL0IFS0hyphenhyphen1D0UwayPPB05j-JQKOTADyXFcIKKaQ-_CD3-hKgTWPd8yZ2-owRXfY/s1600-h/1868CurtisEdwardS1923Yurok-Canoe1823.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOXS-pm9O9SEW73Yrh7GSDEd6uGPoDle_GeeZjTSchd7Tu0gjD_5SO5OaS7RPL4ORJtf0Ra9ygDJkDwL0IFS0hyphenhyphen1D0UwayPPB05j-JQKOTADyXFcIKKaQ-_CD3-hKgTWPd8yZ2-owRXfY/s400/1868CurtisEdwardS1923Yurok-Canoe1823.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5207731714626129554" border="0" /></a><br />[Edward S. Curtis - <span style="font-style: italic;">Yurok Canoe on the Trinity River</span>, 1923]<br /><br />The Yurok, whose name means "downriver people," are Native Americans whose ancestors, by some estimates, have lived in the region for at least 10,000 years,<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFblr_-EEbXNGqGKQTMy7YpzA2uKf-hv7mH-1AQ98B-8z4bNFfQlQVsIWXdYYcm00df4_I0LR3w9IdER9WWgAlGFGQtmLSOigoY9uSf8zuLqxRvDE-vIGU5m_BAVD1it7FuDsOrxsPtv0/s1600-h/000015CaliforniaDelNorteKlamath_River_mouth_aerial_view.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjFblr_-EEbXNGqGKQTMy7YpzA2uKf-hv7mH-1AQ98B-8z4bNFfQlQVsIWXdYYcm00df4_I0LR3w9IdER9WWgAlGFGQtmLSOigoY9uSf8zuLqxRvDE-vIGU5m_BAVD1it7FuDsOrxsPtv0/s400/000015CaliforniaDelNorteKlamath_River_mouth_aerial_view.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5207758330538462882" border="0" /></a><br />near the Pacific Ocean coast<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEilsfR0evWKmreew33JZdJe1EI1VkO1liG4qcYbaIGgdanNcWDllA6iXc6f2bJZeeNWIcv6r2K13OGPOflCqoIHmDuDCQk5LPmurxfemx7EJ-X1-Iboir9jG3WpfSeM_PvHQIq7YwTIngA/s1600-h/000015california-satellite-image-m.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEilsfR0evWKmreew33JZdJe1EI1VkO1liG4qcYbaIGgdanNcWDllA6iXc6f2bJZeeNWIcv6r2K13OGPOflCqoIHmDuDCQk5LPmurxfemx7EJ-X1-Iboir9jG3WpfSeM_PvHQIq7YwTIngA/s400/000015california-satellite-image-m.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5207758678430813874" border="0" /></a><br />of Northern California,<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjml9YC5P5FhWBFrXd32w98S9v544FVZ8Yo_s6iqqhcDdhRt3rWyBDG7j7GwXj_ZYyqFMfYpGkbMZyfQzTqQEAwtoEBTngLh84oB_zDf7BJDZjyEKT2D6JyXjUVFQbWfkpvxN3VLx1UfLs/s1600-h/000013united-states-of-america.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjml9YC5P5FhWBFrXd32w98S9v544FVZ8Yo_s6iqqhcDdhRt3rWyBDG7j7GwXj_ZYyqFMfYpGkbMZyfQzTqQEAwtoEBTngLh84oB_zDf7BJDZjyEKT2D6JyXjUVFQbWfkpvxN3VLx1UfLs/s400/000013united-states-of-america.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5207761298360864450" border="0" /></a><br />United States of<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-dAtFvFMFFCVKatrjs3K-nu15bqNtS_yv556w-oJb3je0DWHIZOsEOWjabW7VVzbYHN58BvNfCK6jpAv_sbmXZtGpauKYXTOuxtLNFB_u9fC2NjMDxpzh_ZJ9BpFFjbgU-ffRqKKnk2g/s1600-h/000013AmericasGlobe.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-dAtFvFMFFCVKatrjs3K-nu15bqNtS_yv556w-oJb3je0DWHIZOsEOWjabW7VVzbYHN58BvNfCK6jpAv_sbmXZtGpauKYXTOuxtLNFB_u9fC2NjMDxpzh_ZJ9BpFFjbgU-ffRqKKnk2g/s400/000013AmericasGlobe.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5207761951195893458" border="0" /></a><br />America.<br /><br />***<br /><br />The United States is situated mostly in central North America, where its 48 contiguous states and Washington, D.C., the capital district, lie between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, bordered by Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. The state of Alaska is in the northwest of the continent, with Canada to its east and Russia to the west across the Bering Strait, and the state of Hawaii is an archipelago in the mid-Pacific. The United States also possesses several territories, or insular areas, scattered around the Caribbean and Pacific.<br /><br />At 3.79 million square miles (9.83 million km²) and with more than 300 million people, the United States is the third or fourth largest country by total area, and third largest by land area and by population.<br /><br />***<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjAYnTdQ-hC_zWa2oJM1c5qX9ypaXcBFLgumlzVNbd4AejMBYM9SolBBtgUJ-l_yNyWNswRfcM08rAlCxiiRqdVn2gB2euRaGRE7k3YmOrhr3jWclohCqD4-23Dw4cMCPhS1ccNlRoODJ4/s1600-h/000015CaliforniaDelNorteHumboltRedwoodTolowaYurokcultural_dancefoto_1.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjAYnTdQ-hC_zWa2oJM1c5qX9ypaXcBFLgumlzVNbd4AejMBYM9SolBBtgUJ-l_yNyWNswRfcM08rAlCxiiRqdVn2gB2euRaGRE7k3YmOrhr3jWclohCqD4-23Dw4cMCPhS1ccNlRoODJ4/s400/000015CaliforniaDelNorteHumboltRedwoodTolowaYurokcultural_dancefoto_1.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5207766594055540450" border="0" /></a><br />[Northwestern California Native American Dance]<br /><br />The Yurok Tribe is California’s largest Indian Tribe with nearly 5,000 enrolled members, and land including, but not limited to, the Yurok Reservation’s lands, which currently extend from one mile on each side from the mouth of the Klamath River and upriver for a distance of 44 miles. The Yurok Tribe’s people are also known historically as the Pohlik-la, Ner-er-er, Petch-ik-lah and Klamath River Indians. For millennia traditional Yurok religion and sovereignty was pervasive and practiced throughout all our historic villages along the Pacific Coast and inland on the Klamath River. The Yurok people carried on extensive trade and social relations through this region and beyond. Yurok commerce traditionally included a monetary system based on the use of dentalium shells, Terk-n-term and other items as currency.<br /><br />Traditional ceremonies include the Deerskin Dance, Doctor Dance, Jump Dance, Brush Dance, Kick Dance, Flower Dance, Boat Dance, and others, that have drawn Yurok people and neighboring tribes together for renewal, healing and prayer.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHL86uC6maDG_q605gnScNIK9gWnvXEbKVoYM5YYlio_HEWTGhz-fh4mOYiUPqjp5DwiFQSfhhU46vsFBBSSJ9q39gGXH-eV4xgqyylQStfrzwFtCu4tl1-uU6pRzG6fgC1lV6xYV-F9I/s1600-h/000015CaliforniaDelNorteYurokBrushdance.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHL86uC6maDG_q605gnScNIK9gWnvXEbKVoYM5YYlio_HEWTGhz-fh4mOYiUPqjp5DwiFQSfhhU46vsFBBSSJ9q39gGXH-eV4xgqyylQStfrzwFtCu4tl1-uU6pRzG6fgC1lV6xYV-F9I/s400/000015CaliforniaDelNorteYurokBrushdance.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5207767032142204658" border="0" /></a><br />California - Yurok - <span style="font-style: italic;">Women's Brush Dance</span><br /><script language="JavaScript" src="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/audio-player.js"></script><br /><object type="application/x-shockwave-flash" data="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/player.swf" id="audioplayer1" height="24" width="290"><br /><param name="movie" value="http://www.erlingwold.com/audio/player.swf"><br /><param name="FlashVars" value="playerID=1&soundFile=http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/Women's Brush Dance.mp3"><br /><param name="quality" value="high"><br /><param name="menu" value="false"><br /><param name="wmode" value="transparent"><br /></object><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzdk7Pcngm55IhsIRM5422aH1Zw51Seax3DYrsCV7Ko7m71jmRkvSgDni6ahlJMoMPZn2kkiZ_kPNu0hi_rDd9tkImT2FtxZPThD81JteP_x0uYLa-kWlUMsJjfKFowrrGDk1TOKTp2ys/s1600/000015CaliforniaYurokWomensBrushDance.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer; width: 309px; height: 400px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgzdk7Pcngm55IhsIRM5422aH1Zw51Seax3DYrsCV7Ko7m71jmRkvSgDni6ahlJMoMPZn2kkiZ_kPNu0hi_rDd9tkImT2FtxZPThD81JteP_x0uYLa-kWlUMsJjfKFowrrGDk1TOKTp2ys/s400/000015CaliforniaYurokWomensBrushDance.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5453046965545967346" border="0" /></a><br /><br />Brush Dance is a ceremony held to heal a sick child or to pray for a long, healthy life. The ceremony is somewhat of a social event where families and villages come together.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitqaMo1S_srQVqA2mx7DuM1O93_nYZNBYZYgwQLas-Xx66fqB2Y9fhzk35dBGz5FcKPuS2g9i0jh7Wq3KVPT4eZDKvsWnBOVRvV5xHlmHUO6zy59rzcoxdbROqbnXnArguZPfmIjZ3F8s/s1600-h/000015CaliforniaHumboltYurok_plankhouse05.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEitqaMo1S_srQVqA2mx7DuM1O93_nYZNBYZYgwQLas-Xx66fqB2Y9fhzk35dBGz5FcKPuS2g9i0jh7Wq3KVPT4eZDKvsWnBOVRvV5xHlmHUO6zy59rzcoxdbROqbnXnArguZPfmIjZ3F8s/s400/000015CaliforniaHumboltYurok_plankhouse05.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5207770889022836482" border="0" /></a><br />In the past, the dance would take place in a home of the child: the roof of the plank house would be removed.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTnH8tYShw9Zs-1c6z9LUMB8Cr_tZt_KUZ3Ht927bbZmSNOR7hSYWUKmMuN8Epq4UDmbPvQwY0inqPl6XPY4La1byiLYAhUrRrFfM-XxNzKg5VmSrlkdfkyvi0i-irIGAWAdqK2cZ3thk/s1600-h/000015CaliforniaDelNorteYurokSumegDancePit_F.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhTnH8tYShw9Zs-1c6z9LUMB8Cr_tZt_KUZ3Ht927bbZmSNOR7hSYWUKmMuN8Epq4UDmbPvQwY0inqPl6XPY4La1byiLYAhUrRrFfM-XxNzKg5VmSrlkdfkyvi0i-irIGAWAdqK2cZ3thk/s400/000015CaliforniaDelNorteYurokSumegDancePit_F.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5207775695091240722" border="0" /></a><br />Today however, dances take place at specific villages where dance pits still remain. More and more families are participating in dances, thus more dances are taking place throughout the summer. The medicine doctor, her helpers (medicine boy and girl), the child, and dance family begin the dance on a Wednesday. The medicine doctor begins the process much sooner. Actual dancing begins on Thursday night, with two dances. The medicine for the dance continues with dancing resuming Saturday night lasting until late Sunday morning and some say the dance ends before the sun rises above the hills. Other local tribes participate, making up different dance camps. Both females and males dance. Different tribes take turns hosting dance rounds.<br /><br />***<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiILbbaskxsJUD4jN4pXUkiv4gY0rvaSXSyZtHZuZn-EyU2m4aKPrnVSHU05e24NdSusw6wSTbJkCx4qMdLQUHdzl5ORD0RQSM92ZLIkE8z4B3Zwze6KCQv-5mLOfmEfe15a_Q4Dj1mDoFq/s1600-h/000005ChinaPentatonicC_major_pentatonic_scale.PNG.png"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiILbbaskxsJUD4jN4pXUkiv4gY0rvaSXSyZtHZuZn-EyU2m4aKPrnVSHU05e24NdSusw6wSTbJkCx4qMdLQUHdzl5ORD0RQSM92ZLIkE8z4B3Zwze6KCQv-5mLOfmEfe15a_Q4Dj1mDoFq/s400/000005ChinaPentatonicC_major_pentatonic_scale.PNG.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212423134952729506" border="0" /></a><br />[C Major Chinese Pentatonic Scale]<br /><br />A pentatonic scale is a musical scale with five pitches per octave in contrast to an heptatonic (seven note) scale such as the major scale. Pentatonic scales are very common and are found all over the world, including but not limited to Native American music, Celtic folk music, Hungarian folk music, West African music, African-American spirituals, American blues music and rock music, Sami joik singing, children's songs, the clarinet music of Epirus in northwest Greece and Southern Albania, the tuning of the Ethiopian krar and the Indonesian gamelan, melodies of Japan and China (including the folk music of these countries), the Afro-Caribbean tradition, Polish highlanders from the Tatra Mountains, and Western Classical composers such as Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, Bela Bartok, Igor Stravinsky, and Mark Alburger.<br /><br />***<br /><br />The female soloist in <span style="font-style: italic;">Women's Brush Dance</span> has a high, loud, intense tessitura (the part of her overall vocal range -- from low to high -- used in the piece) met by wild mumbles and shouts from her male call-and-response accompanists. The instruments are abalone-shell-disks sewn into the female dancers' costumes -- necessary for the performance. Text is a mixture of vocables and hidden words. The melody descends, in classic style, with a Chinese major pentatonic scale. Each phrase ends with an ascending a perfect fourth as <span style="font-style: italic;">Sol</span>-Do, which is cross-culturally, worldwide, the most popular melodic start, and an oft conclusion, to melodies.<br /><br />Texture is a memorable contrapuntal (note-against-note) accompaniment ostinato (repeated passage) starting softly, crescendoing, and eventually drowning out the soloist. The verse, or strophe, repeats three times, for the integrity of the song. Originally a healing piece, the song is done for entertainment and display. The reverence for the song and dance have not been lost. And what is it about the performance of the second verse that makes it "a good one?"...<br /><br />***<br /><br />Texture is the overall quality of sound of a piece, most often indicated by the number of voices (pitch lines) in the music and by the relationship between these voices. A piece's texture may be further described using terms such as "thick" and "light," "rough" or "smooth." For example, Aaron Copland's more popular pieces are described as having an "open" texture. The perceived texture of a piece can be affected by the number and character of parts playing at once, the timbre of the instruments or voices playing these parts and the harmony, tempo, and rhythms used.<br /><br />In musicology, particularly in the fields of music history and music analysis, some common terms for different types of texture are:<br /><br />Monophonic<br /><br />One melodic voice without any other moving pitch line of accompaniment (although rhythmic accompaniment may be present), strictly performed<br /><br />Heterophonic<br /><br />One melodic voice without any other moving pitch line of accompaniment (although rhythmic accompaniment may be present), freely performed. A musical texture in which the voices are slightly different in character, perhaps moving in contrasting rhythms. The voices may play a single melody with simultaneous variations in that melody (an embellished/"ragged" form of monophony).<br /><br />Homophonic<br /><br />Multiple voices where one voice, the melody, stands out prominently and the other voices form a background of accompaniment. If all the parts have the same (or nearly the same) rhythm, then the homophonic texture can also be described as homorhythmic.<br /><br />Polyphonic<br /><br />Multiple melodic voices which are to some extent independent from one another.<br /><br />Although in music instruction certain styles or repertoires of music are often identified with one of these descriptions (for example, Gregorian chant is described as monophonic, Bach Chorales are described as homophonic and fugues as polyphonic), many composers use more than one type of texture in the same piece of music.<br /><br />***<br /><br />The Women's Brush Dance can be notated in 4/4 time. The first three meaures of the melody could be sung as:<br /><br />Sol Mi Mi Re Do Re<br />Mi Do Do <span style="font-weight: bold;">La Sol La </span> <span style="font-weight: bold;">Sol</span> Do<br /><br />(N.B. the bold letters signify notes below, rather than above, Do)<br /><br />***<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjjhGzDOi5YmEz8AFA4riIeG3mxrLDRv8_p7vvsTtxckYV4Vq23uVofgNntM7EiRZXWynENfbxPCl7wYtRcx5SWCIhPvnPKmnQZnlrkUi_PZ3oDWJFYbBTjowxnb8SD6EthhgVVp8rn9sI/s1600-h/000001Tie_music.png"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgjjhGzDOi5YmEz8AFA4riIeG3mxrLDRv8_p7vvsTtxckYV4Vq23uVofgNntM7EiRZXWynENfbxPCl7wYtRcx5SWCIhPvnPKmnQZnlrkUi_PZ3oDWJFYbBTjowxnb8SD6EthhgVVp8rn9sI/s400/000001Tie_music.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213064824250522418" border="0" /></a><br />In music notation, a tie is a curved line connecting the heads of two notes of the same pitch, indicating that they are to be played as a single note with a duration equal to the sum of the individual notes' note values.<br /><br />The tie shown above connects a quarter note to a sixteenth note, creating a note 5/4 as long as a quarter note, or five times as a long as a sixteenth note -- there is no single note value to express this duration.<br /><br />***<br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqFN6Q4M0QP7ojg_Erb0dMw_4ph7GkUAsz-KN-3BWGmf_NK4-aJ8U3bZ6313KwZueOXgDu8uq9BS4dL4zzw-JvVPnFiYkbD3zHTbGPmwz9IBecCy6x8usPBCcI_WlphNa3nuM19XF5FraE/s1600-h/000001dottednotes.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhqFN6Q4M0QP7ojg_Erb0dMw_4ph7GkUAsz-KN-3BWGmf_NK4-aJ8U3bZ6313KwZueOXgDu8uq9BS4dL4zzw-JvVPnFiYkbD3zHTbGPmwz9IBecCy6x8usPBCcI_WlphNa3nuM19XF5FraE/s400/000001dottednotes.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213065297052338226" border="0" /></a><br />In Western musical notation, a dotted note is a note with a small dot written after it. The dot adds a half as much again to the basic note's duration. If the basic note lasts two beats, the corresponding dotted note lasts three beats.<br /><br />Any note value may be dotted.<br /><br />The use of a dot for augmentation of a note dates back at least to the 10th century, although the exact amount of augmentation is disputed.<br /><br />More than one dot may be added; each dot adds half of the duration added by the previous dot, again, as shown above<br /><br />A double-dotted note is a note with two small dots written after it. Its duration is 1¾ times (1 + ½ + ¼) its basic note value.<br /><br />The double-dotted note is used less frequently than the dotted note. Typically, as in the example below, it is followed by a note whose duration is one-quarter the length of the basic note value, completing the next higher note value.<br /><br />In a French overture (and sometimes other Baroque music), notes written as dotted notes are often interpreted to mean double-dotted notes, and the following note is commensurately shortened.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtAyKDyAhDMINTqbrBeE5NVNNWuItYfMwfNEKb_frWbhUP08AMiyrzluD_9a2oNnbQTSC-TjlnMUvIIqCAjk5HJJh3TlX9Tf2nqyXWT6A-jy2dfWJWbZgkqVRJBugt27HkiGeAkuGvc8iM/s1600-h/000001Triple-dotted_note.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtAyKDyAhDMINTqbrBeE5NVNNWuItYfMwfNEKb_frWbhUP08AMiyrzluD_9a2oNnbQTSC-TjlnMUvIIqCAjk5HJJh3TlX9Tf2nqyXWT6A-jy2dfWJWbZgkqVRJBugt27HkiGeAkuGvc8iM/s400/000001Triple-dotted_note.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213066430560108530" border="0" /></a><br />[An example of the use of double- and triple-dotted notes is the <span style="font-style: italic;">Prelude in G Major</span> for piano, op. 28 No. 3, by Frédéric Chopin]<br /><br />A triple-dotted note is a note with three dots written after it; its duration is 1⅞ times (1 + ½ + ¼ + ⅛) its basic note value. Use of a triple-dotted note value is not common in the Baroque and Classical periods, but quite common in the music of Richard Wagner and Anton Bruckner, especially in their brass parts.<br /><br />***<br /><br />In some cases one might tie two notes which could be written with a single note value, such as a quarter note tied to an eighth note (the same length as a dotted quarter). This might be because:<br /><br />A barline is in between the notes<br /><br />The second note begins a metric grouping, falling on a stressed beat of the meter. This change in notation (choosing the tie rather than the longer note value) does not affect performance, but it makes the music easier to read.<br /><br />Several notes in succession can be tied together. Such a succession can also be part of a larger, slurred phrase, in which case, ties and slurs must be used simultaneously and distinguishably.<br /><br />[2000 China Bone Flutes / 1998 Yurok California]Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-66515207900263228551998-01-01T21:51:00.000-08:002010-08-13T17:46:40.600-07:00Algeria (c. 8000 BC) - Dancers - Function<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp0.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDT8bxfTcPI/AAAAAAAAEu4/YfusWvrMkZQ/s1600-h/000003AlgeriaTassliNAjjer.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp0.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDT8bxfTcPI/AAAAAAAAEu4/YfusWvrMkZQ/s400/000003AlgeriaTassliNAjjer.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5203061023591067890" border="0" /></a><br /><br />The Tassili n'Ajjer is a mountain range in the Sahara desert in southeast Algeria. It extends about 500 km from 26°20′N, 5°00′E east-south-east to 24°00′N, 10°00′E, and the highest point is Adrar Afao, 2158 m, at 25°10′N, 8°11′E.<br /><br />The literal English translation of the Berber name is "Plateau of the Rivers" referring to a time when the climate was repeatedly far wetter than today.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp1.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDUHMxfTcUI/AAAAAAAAEvg/5jL3Na4wT1g/s1600-h/000003AlgeriaTassiliDjanet-Algeria.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp1.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDUHMxfTcUI/AAAAAAAAEvg/5jL3Na4wT1g/s400/000003AlgeriaTassiliDjanet-Algeria.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5203072860520935746" border="0" /></a><br />The nearest town is Djanet, about 10 km southwest of the range.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp2.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDUGEBfTcTI/AAAAAAAAEvY/DQMLmwavpDc/s1600-h/000003AlgeriaTassiliNAjjerCypressDetail.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp2.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDUGEBfTcTI/AAAAAAAAEvY/DQMLmwavpDc/s400/000003AlgeriaTassiliNAjjerCypressDetail.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5203071610685452594" border="0" /></a><br />Much of the range, including the cypresses and archaeological sites, is protected in a National park, Biosphere Reserve and World Heritage Site, named the Tassili n'Ajjer National Park.<br /><br />Cupressus dupreziana, the Saharan Cypress, is a very rare coniferous tree native to the Tassili n'Ajjer mountains in the central Sahara Desert, southeast Algeria, where it forms a unique population of trees hundreds of kilometres from any other trees. There are only 233 specimens of this critically endangered species, the largest about 22 m tall. The majority are very old, estimated to be over 2000 years old, with very little regeneration due to the increasing desertification of the Sahara. Rainfall totals in the area are estimated to be about 30 mm annually. The largest one is named Tin-Balalan is believed to be the oldest tarout tress with a circumference of 12 meters or 36 feet.<br /><br />The range is composed largely of sandstone. Erosion in the area has resulted in nearly 300 natural rock arches being formed, along with many other spectacular landforms.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp2.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDUH8BfTcVI/AAAAAAAAEvo/AhlRl6mt_BM/s1600-h/000003AlgeriaTassiliMyrtleDjanet04.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp2.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDUH8BfTcVI/AAAAAAAAEvo/AhlRl6mt_BM/s400/000003AlgeriaTassiliMyrtleDjanet04.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5203073672269754706" border="0" /></a><br />Because of the altitude and the water-holding properties of the sandstone, the vegetation is somewhat richer than the surrounding desert; it includes a very scattered woodland of the endangered endemic species Saharan Cypress and Saharan Myrtle in the higher eastern half of the range.<br /><br />The range is also noted for its prehistoric rock paintings and other ancient archaeological sites, dating from neolithic times when the local climate was much moister, with savannah rather than desert.<br /><br />Neolithic culture appeared in the Levant (Jericho, modern-day West Bank) about 8500 BC. It developed directly from the Epipaleolithic Natufian culture in the region, whose people pioneered wild cereal use, which then evolved into true farming. The Natufians can thus be called "proto-Neolithic" (11,000–8500 BC). As the Natufians had become dependent on wild cereals in their diet, and a sedentary way of life had begun among them, the climatic changes associated with the Younger Dryas forced people to develop farming.<br /><br />The Younger Dryas stadial, named after the alpine / tundra wildflower Dryas octopetala, and also referred to as the Big Freeze, was a brief (approximately 1300 ± 70 years) cold climate period following the Bölling/Allerød interstadial at the end of the Pleistocene between approximately 10,800 to 9,500 years BC, and preceding the Preboreal of the early Holocene.<br /><br />By 8000 BC farming communities had spread to Anatolia, North Africa, and North Mesopotamia.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp0.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDT-4xfTcQI/AAAAAAAAEvA/RM02EfxdSmg/s1600-h/000003AlgeriaBC8000CaveNorthAfricaTassiliClose.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp0.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDT-4xfTcQI/AAAAAAAAEvA/RM02EfxdSmg/s400/000003AlgeriaBC8000CaveNorthAfricaTassiliClose.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5203063720830529794" border="0" /></a><br />The art of the Tassili n'Ajjer depicts herds of cattle, large wild animals including crocodiles, and human activities such as hunting and dancing.<br /><script language="JavaScript" src="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/audio-player.js"></script><br /><object type="application/x-shockwave-flash" data="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/player.swf" id="audioplayer1" height="24" width="290"><br /><param name="movie" value="http://www.erlingwold.com/audio/player.swf"><br /><param name="FlashVars" value="playerID=1&soundFile=http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/Dance Music.mp3"><br /><param name="quality" value="high"><br /><param name="menu" value="false"><br /><param name="wmode" value="transparent"><br /></object><br /><br />[Algeria - <span style="font-style: italic;">Dance Music</span>]<br /><br /><object height="325" width="400"><param name="movie" value="http://www.youtube.com/v/aB6RtRV53zU?fs=1&hl=en_US"><param name="allowFullScreen" value="true"><param name="allowscriptaccess" value="always"><embed src="http://www.youtube.com/v/aB6RtRV53zU?fs=1&hl=en_US" type="application/x-shockwave-flash" allowscriptaccess="always" allowfullscreen="true" height="325" width="400"></embed></object><br /><br />Music functions in a variety of arenas, including the realms of<br /><br />aesthetics<br /><br />communication<br /><br />culture<br /><br />dance<br /><br />drama<br /><br />economics<br /><br />entertainment<br /><br />ethnicity<br /><br />gender<br /><br />health<br /><br />military<br /><br />politics<br /><br />religion<br /><br />romance<br /><br />status<br /><br />work<br /><br />[1998 Yurok California / 1998 Algeria Dancers / 1997 Cameroon]Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-28812014422021980051997-01-03T10:00:00.000-08:002008-06-17T23:40:19.464-07:00Cameroon Settled (c. 8500 BC) - Bow - Number<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjG9YnExsdHGwDmuqRrYZXRwk5Eek-XP3Ymvvs5OE6YIl1r16KEW1rWLbiFl8eO1BG3Cb3XOhZ6wRtvsqajRBMaeKhOBHpVK5hTiC0-93aTXe_KEItWO3BqeF79pcVGC76fVruKHHQqB_U/s1600-h/000002Cameroonsatellite-image-of-cameroon.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjG9YnExsdHGwDmuqRrYZXRwk5Eek-XP3Ymvvs5OE6YIl1r16KEW1rWLbiFl8eO1BG3Cb3XOhZ6wRtvsqajRBMaeKhOBHpVK5hTiC0-93aTXe_KEItWO3BqeF79pcVGC76fVruKHHQqB_U/s400/000002Cameroonsatellite-image-of-cameroon.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5203620786678756562" border="0" /></a><br />Cameroon is an area of central-western Africa. It borders Nigeria to the west; Chad to the northeast; the Central African Republic to the east; and Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, and the Republic of the Congo to the south. Cameroon's coastline lies on the Bight of Bonny, part of the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMQp2-IGsKCA9SWVL5WGNAhS8aAgtJmRccpEnY6I8ZHgStWiFYpue4ORZB0umwqmKVYaB5FeIMnIwt2ypO_gbf8KZtrHhJ_RPo4ZO6AFXu8sGxJtSp9ln1k3Tru7dQTY6pqtAfuhBHA3E/s1600-h/000002CameroonRhumsiki_Peak-1.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMQp2-IGsKCA9SWVL5WGNAhS8aAgtJmRccpEnY6I8ZHgStWiFYpue4ORZB0umwqmKVYaB5FeIMnIwt2ypO_gbf8KZtrHhJ_RPo4ZO6AFXu8sGxJtSp9ln1k3Tru7dQTY6pqtAfuhBHA3E/s400/000002CameroonRhumsiki_Peak-1.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5203621091621434594" border="0" /></a><br />The country is called "Africa in miniature" for its geological and cultural diversity. Natural features include beaches, deserts, mountains, rainforests, and savannas. The highest point is Mount Cameroon in the southwest, and the largest cities are Douala, Yaoundé, and Garoua. Cameroon is home to over 200 different ethnic and linguistic groups. The country is well known for its native styles of music.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0_4sKd7sdPHShALxjnSJEQwHz5MjP7QOYQArEiw6B9mh3v4AGzCmGKSVfZEqpP2CpOp-9duNeZQZsw0jDMvBRElsULYnVleDToGK3Tn9jEQRUMIZUYGTOKLm12VgFsUrRZhukJMuYhY0/s1600-h/000002CameroonBakapygmies.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg0_4sKd7sdPHShALxjnSJEQwHz5MjP7QOYQArEiw6B9mh3v4AGzCmGKSVfZEqpP2CpOp-9duNeZQZsw0jDMvBRElsULYnVleDToGK3Tn9jEQRUMIZUYGTOKLm12VgFsUrRZhukJMuYhY0/s400/000002CameroonBakapygmies.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5203623415198741778" border="0" /></a><br />The territory of present day Cameroon was first settled during the Neolithic (beginning c. 8500 BC). The longest continuous inhabitants are the Pygmy groups such as the Baka.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgviqZR3RyGF1A72YM-36cBhO2o1j8Dh1kkzGxMo9qh58aCkrsh5v6obvGxpC1A6xH2hEHVf1iLS2_8a562HDRXNp6xZV4X3Jl_g3k5XFMZCk7fHvMEqbtc9-YXbAsHHr5BJew_SbkmCg0/s1600-h/000002CameroonMusicalBowClose.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgviqZR3RyGF1A72YM-36cBhO2o1j8Dh1kkzGxMo9qh58aCkrsh5v6obvGxpC1A6xH2hEHVf1iLS2_8a562HDRXNp6xZV4X3Jl_g3k5XFMZCk7fHvMEqbtc9-YXbAsHHr5BJew_SbkmCg0/s400/000002CameroonMusicalBowClose.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5203621929140057330" border="0" /></a><br /><br />Cameroon - <span style="font-style: italic;">Musical Bow</span><br /><script language="JavaScript" src="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/audio-player.js"></script><br /><object type="application/x-shockwave-flash" data="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/player.swf" id="audioplayer1" height="24" width="290"><br /><param name="movie" value="http://www.erlingwold.com/audio/player.swf"><br /><param name="FlashVars" value="playerID=1&soundFile=http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/Musical Bow.mp3"><br /><param name="quality" value="high"><br /><param name="menu" value="false"><br /><param name="wmode" value="transparent"><br /></object><br /><br />***<br /><br />In music theory, the term interval describes the difference in pitch between two notes.<br /><br />Intervals may be described as:<br /><br />vertical (or harmonic) if the two notes sound simultaneously<br /><br />linear (or melodic), if the notes sound successively.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7-ebcHcNf5iS4qeIm8V8LOZpsl1Rlsr-8R13mG5UDK3XN_W-XHVm0ov6y1SzoJeC67A5yaP_GvFHI1k9wW3qoNVEHHUmbWu5KpfwXofHFQ2KPloOO_8IfgXUv02iN4WvciQR9XFiEovsI/s1600-h/000001Interval_numbers.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7-ebcHcNf5iS4qeIm8V8LOZpsl1Rlsr-8R13mG5UDK3XN_W-XHVm0ov6y1SzoJeC67A5yaP_GvFHI1k9wW3qoNVEHHUmbWu5KpfwXofHFQ2KPloOO_8IfgXUv02iN4WvciQR9XFiEovsI/s400/000001Interval_numbers.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213041866244802546" border="0" /></a>In Western harmonic theory, intervals are labeled according to the number of scale steps or staff positions they encompass, as shown above.<br /><br />Below are some examples:<br /><br />CC = One letter name involved = a unison (1)<br /><br />CD = Two letter names involved = a second (2)<br /><br />CDE or C up to E = Three letter names involved = a third (3)<br /><br />GABC or G up to C = Four letter names involved = a fourth (4)<br /><br />CDEFG or C up to G = Five letter names involved = a fifth (5)<br /><br />GABCDE or G up to E = Six letter names involved = a sixth (6)<br /><br />CDEFGAB or C up to B = Seven letter names involved = a seventh (7)<br /><br />CDEFGAB<span style="font-style: italic;">C</span> or C up to <span style="font-style: italic;">C</span> (italics here symbolizes the next octave up) = an octave (8)Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-13875984888227143821994-01-01T12:54:00.000-08:002011-06-12T23:55:29.297-07:00Berbers in Algeria (c. 10,000 BC) - Steps - F<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_36GG4He3m2YUJxn5ZJvxfxAc65uEbBnRpqeuXC7IYqIjT0b_XF73mpGLLHzk6I8PCxDBNN5vY6CakHnVtDQkVzmNeOhsJbxeawBCa0yUqZVzc3qMVH6R43edBx66VDtomDpZ8lg-eQ4/s1600-h/000003Algeriasatellite-image-of-algeria.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg_36GG4He3m2YUJxn5ZJvxfxAc65uEbBnRpqeuXC7IYqIjT0b_XF73mpGLLHzk6I8PCxDBNN5vY6CakHnVtDQkVzmNeOhsJbxeawBCa0yUqZVzc3qMVH6R43edBx66VDtomDpZ8lg-eQ4/s400/000003Algeriasatellite-image-of-algeria.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5204036204505560738" border="0" /></a><br />Algeria is the second largest country on the African continent and the 11th largest country in the world in terms of total area.<br /><br />It is bordered by Tunisia in the northeast, Libya in the east, Niger in the southeast, Mali and Mauritania in the southwest, a few kilometers of the Western Sahara in the west, Morocco in the northwest, and the Mediterranean Sea in the north.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLRv5nZ49RVN8MUjjgpkttfIFYC6VGVPQ1NavTyykgbMJGz4IcQ46cTepMfjamcyQqymWKuwLjlNHACqCDCn7SDbGmALSJhxQvAZh4pR8MN1tXQNUR5t0ixVCWwFdk-Pjfmt4z_MgU6s0/s1600-h/000003AlgeriaBerberCountry.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgLRv5nZ49RVN8MUjjgpkttfIFYC6VGVPQ1NavTyykgbMJGz4IcQ46cTepMfjamcyQqymWKuwLjlNHACqCDCn7SDbGmALSJhxQvAZh4pR8MN1tXQNUR5t0ixVCWwFdk-Pjfmt4z_MgU6s0/s400/000003AlgeriaBerberCountry.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5204041603279451826" border="0" /></a><br />Algeria has been inhabited by Berbers (or Imazighen) since at least 10,000 BC.<br /><br />Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. They are discontinuously distributed from the Atlantic to the Siwa oasis, in Egypt, and from the Mediterranean to the Niger River. They speak various Berber languages, which together form a branch of the Afroasiatic language family. Between fourteen and twenty-five million Berber speakers live within this region, most densely in Morocco and becoming generally scarcer eastward through the rest of the Maghreb and beyond.<br /><br />Many Berbers call themselves some variant of the word Imazighen (singular Amazigh), meaning "free men." This is common in Morocco, but elsewhere within the Berber homeland a local, more particular term, such as Kabyle or Chaoui, is more often used instead.<br /><br />Algeria - <span style="font-style: italic;">Dance Music</span><br /><script language="JavaScript" src="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/audio-player.js"></script><br /><object type="application/x-shockwave-flash" data="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/player.swf" id="audioplayer1" height="24" width="290"><br /><param name="movie" value="http://www.erlingwold.com/audio/player.swf"><br /><param name="FlashVars" value="playerID=1&soundFile=http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/Dance Music.mp3"><br /><param name="quality" value="high"><br /><param name="menu" value="false"><br /><param name="wmode" value="transparent"><br /></object><br /><br />The <span style="font-style: italic;">Algerian Dance</span> features an ostinato (repeated rhythmic cycle) of 6 beats, with a drum pulse that can be heard as<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">ONE</span> TWO three FOUR five six<br /><br />Where <span style="font-weight: bold;">ONE </span>is the downbeat, followed by secondarily strong pulses on TWO and FOUR.<br /><br />If this music were to be notated with the quarter note getting the beat, it would be said to be in 6/4 time (6 beats per measure, with the quarter note getting the beat).<br /><br />The <span style="font-style: italic;">Dance </span>features a variety of intervals -- distances between adjacent notes -- the smallest of which roughly equates with what is known as a half-step in Western music.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjv3sCXei5oHKhHN55L9d9wR26qYQ-ngrFkfoLR44uxK2wYVtkZuZrAgAia5hogTGxKMjW_l1exW1vBdOgWjttOF5lJLevDQ8NT-86978EwX-k41HRlGT85Sfp3R7sZXVi2E6hcVR8FxVpu/s1600-h/000001HalfStepsOnAKeyboard.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjv3sCXei5oHKhHN55L9d9wR26qYQ-ngrFkfoLR44uxK2wYVtkZuZrAgAia5hogTGxKMjW_l1exW1vBdOgWjttOF5lJLevDQ8NT-86978EwX-k41HRlGT85Sfp3R7sZXVi2E6hcVR8FxVpu/s400/000001HalfStepsOnAKeyboard.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213008672882038098" border="0" /></a><br />Half steps are the smallest intervals on a piano keyboard: the distance between adjacent white notes and black notes, or between white notes when there are no intervening black notes.<br /><br /><br />***<br /><br />An accidental is a musical notation symbol used to raise or lower the pitch of a note.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNSQQnSRYNmoOdJ3RbIPexBxflPcn635XVjy4de2AI23UDFOPolw0ybpWuTyAqGA203sHBUvfA4c18kjW5V9WjwPZ0uJnJNPnewIj6WaCAPACQoqqH1Jg3dZHgHzj0hP5GUtbSdhOmtN3I/s1600-h/0991GuidoGamut.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjNSQQnSRYNmoOdJ3RbIPexBxflPcn635XVjy4de2AI23UDFOPolw0ybpWuTyAqGA203sHBUvfA4c18kjW5V9WjwPZ0uJnJNPnewIj6WaCAPACQoqqH1Jg3dZHgHzj0hP5GUtbSdhOmtN3I/s400/0991GuidoGamut.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213031104275271122" border="0" /></a><br />The three principal symbols indicating whether a note should be raised or lowered in pitch are derived from variations of the letter B in medieval times:<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQiEaf6ser60cW3tDOwwmgV0-1AM30IahG8btqDfbKgdprXPdc7Vhj4RrvV31f6h2aIbDxCJEWG9IMS22xjrmDexR-x1ZOc1-yQ7BtrJimGwnPahk2bVOQ5XtElGjM9X4_dKLWJE959Kjj/s1600-h/000001BFlatSoftBe.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQiEaf6ser60cW3tDOwwmgV0-1AM30IahG8btqDfbKgdprXPdc7Vhj4RrvV31f6h2aIbDxCJEWG9IMS22xjrmDexR-x1ZOc1-yQ7BtrJimGwnPahk2bVOQ5XtElGjM9X4_dKLWJE959Kjj/s400/000001BFlatSoftBe.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213021111358830802" border="0" /></a><br />the flat sign (♭) from the round "B rotundum" or "soft b."<br /><br />A flat (♭) lowers a pitch one half step.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJquoUFajuMwY3vPgbgHVNnvqjXVd3zOrOJFGEchIj5JPEGb0OkETPzNb31X0e4tq6mR2IXOdVXrLo8gS0pPt9OC0Wix9ZyNXCy0C13iVlciX0Dp0SavhqMtzPXdOxK810QkiCtXYHS21K/s1600-h/000001BNaturalHardB.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgJquoUFajuMwY3vPgbgHVNnvqjXVd3zOrOJFGEchIj5JPEGb0OkETPzNb31X0e4tq6mR2IXOdVXrLo8gS0pPt9OC0Wix9ZyNXCy0C13iVlciX0Dp0SavhqMtzPXdOxK810QkiCtXYHS21K/s400/000001BNaturalHardB.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213022544416773586" border="0" /></a><br />The natural (♮) and the sharp (♯) evolved from from the square "B quadratum" or "hard b."<br /><br />A sharp (♯) raises a pitch one half step.<br /><br />A natural (♮) cancels out a flat or sharp.<br /><br />In the early days of European music notation (4-line staff Gregorian chant manuscripts), only the note B could be altered (i.e. have an accidental applied to it): it could be flattened, thus moving from the hexachordum durum (i.e. the hard hexachord [six-note pattern]: G-A-B-C-D-E) where it is natural, to the hexachordum molle (i.e. the soft hexachord: F-G-A-B♭-C-D) where it is flat; the note B is not present in the third hexachord hexachordum naturale (i.e. the natural hexachord: C-D-E-F-G-A).<br /><br />This long use of B as the only altered note incidentally helps explain some notational peculiarities:<br /><br />the flat sign actually derives from a round B, signifying the B of the soft hexachord, that is, B flat (hence the name of the flat sign in French "bémol" from medieval French "bé mol" -- modern French "bé mou" -- or "soft b") and originally meant only B♭<br /><br />the natural sign derives from a square B, signifying the B of the hard hexachord, that is, B natural (hence the name of the natural sign in French "bécarre" from medieval French "bé carre," earlier "bé quarre" -- modern French "bé carré" -- or "square b") and originally meant only B natural.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijJME95u9u1pQxOkDRgg5YlY3qhG0dDFqe0FY5fe3sJghNaTqOb97SDpluqYdfLcU-_2wrwBCNfl3K7mcsrKJdO3Xpx4ZkBRK0fbhEfeaeLlmysRXJTbQ6jCJPkM6t3C2JOaTTeBLCpc9E/s1600-h/000001BNaturalAsGermanH.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijJME95u9u1pQxOkDRgg5YlY3qhG0dDFqe0FY5fe3sJghNaTqOb97SDpluqYdfLcU-_2wrwBCNfl3K7mcsrKJdO3Xpx4ZkBRK0fbhEfeaeLlmysRXJTbQ6jCJPkM6t3C2JOaTTeBLCpc9E/s400/000001BNaturalAsGermanH.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213024535445968498" border="0" /></a><br />In the same way, in German music notation the letter B designates B flat while the letter H, which is actually a deformation of a square B, designates B natural.<br /><br />As polyphony became more complex, notes other than B needed to be altered in order to avoid undesirable harmonic or melodic intervals (especially the augmented 4th, or tritone, that music theory writers referred to as "diabolus in musica," i.e. "the devil in music"). The first sharp in use was F♯, then came the second flat E♭, then C♯, G♯, etc.; by the 16th century B♭, E♭, A♭, D♭, G♭ and F♯, C♯, G♯, D♯ and A♯ were all in use to a greater or lesser extent.<br /><br />However, those accidentals were often not notated in vocal part-books (but the correct pitches were always notated in tablature). The notational practice of not marking implied accidentals, leaving them to be supplied by the performer instead, was called musica ficta (i.e. "feigned music" or "fictitious music").<br /><br />***<br /><br />Since about 1700, accidentals have been understood to continue for the remainder of the measure in which they occur, so that a subsequent note on the same staff position is still affected by that accidental, unless replaced by an accidental of its own. Notes on other staff positions, including those an octave away, are unaffected. Once a barline is passed, the effect of the accidental ends, except when a note affected by an accidental (either explicit or implied from earlier in the measure) is tied to the same note across a barline.<br /><br />***<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1SchrvO82i_bGkkAy1xBnwxDn4LU20ZD_Ut3awjhffRrujhIUWsadQiLhm1aZrZCOd1WsIF0-wRv1wNIfPSgIJw5eCdgIQrFCir2TM8p3dUrkNQO2Wq032O47_B4uih-bXAVLUwL3gClw/s1600-h/000001KeyboardNotesNamedCleaner.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg1SchrvO82i_bGkkAy1xBnwxDn4LU20ZD_Ut3awjhffRrujhIUWsadQiLhm1aZrZCOd1WsIF0-wRv1wNIfPSgIJw5eCdgIQrFCir2TM8p3dUrkNQO2Wq032O47_B4uih-bXAVLUwL3gClw/s400/000001KeyboardNotesNamedCleaner.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213026068237494754" border="0" /></a>The white notes on the piano are usually designated by simple letter names, whereas the black notes may be spelled as flats or sharps.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrsQrnF2AcTzfYQF4sqS6QwOP1O5m_gNQHHNDwG3DHZ2chjWijc75ZyANdAnIdsSxXIG9w7NgYrLtZA8MpYXdKlLS8cA64u4esGk7o87nwQSr0SiC5w_tefdPGkNgN7EV7GVc0q5Iw6eHb/s1600-h/000001sharpA-flatB-natrualC.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrsQrnF2AcTzfYQF4sqS6QwOP1O5m_gNQHHNDwG3DHZ2chjWijc75ZyANdAnIdsSxXIG9w7NgYrLtZA8MpYXdKlLS8cA64u4esGk7o87nwQSr0SiC5w_tefdPGkNgN7EV7GVc0q5Iw6eHb/s400/000001sharpA-flatB-natrualC.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213028886321237298" border="0" /></a><br />A# and Bb look different in staff notation but are the same note on a standard piano keyboard.<br /><br />The note A# ("A-Sharp") is written on the staff as #A ("Sharp-A").<br /><br />***<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnWbDY8w26Ae7WTeQW1Vi8lM8537PgkDPK3_iqDMPHVY9-IC25BEtnC6L7ae0IJR9t-PJPpgVn-lt8D2A5sUXiK66qcVvO0kTng0TVN-U4-VKeYEANZxbo7StHu-0YX2DVFOWMsVYqCEAv/s1600-h/000001CmajorScaleIntervalsWHOnKeyboard.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnWbDY8w26Ae7WTeQW1Vi8lM8537PgkDPK3_iqDMPHVY9-IC25BEtnC6L7ae0IJR9t-PJPpgVn-lt8D2A5sUXiK66qcVvO0kTng0TVN-U4-VKeYEANZxbo7StHu-0YX2DVFOWMsVYqCEAv/s400/000001CmajorScaleIntervalsWHOnKeyboard.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213036413770476578" border="0" /></a><br />The pattern of intervals in any major scale is WWHWWWH<br /><br />(whole step / whole step / half step /<br /><br />whole step / whole step / whole step / half step.<br /><br />This pattern is easiest to see in C major on a piano keyboard,<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiVqbkm7WX0c70VjJI0zpHx39S8QxNsajlk2ih7ugYVfQCAWk5UuhKuhA_ipIK7QOyIOH61sGUsMK4cVLGSCFRut0Z9Fx-LqjMa_pQ4vdv4HaF1UANvdLCe87DsBCVTRaB22K861yOlc7b/s1600-h/000001c+major+scale+WH+STEPS.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiiVqbkm7WX0c70VjJI0zpHx39S8QxNsajlk2ih7ugYVfQCAWk5UuhKuhA_ipIK7QOyIOH61sGUsMK4cVLGSCFRut0Z9Fx-LqjMa_pQ4vdv4HaF1UANvdLCe87DsBCVTRaB22K861yOlc7b/s400/000001c+major+scale+WH+STEPS.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213032877858977778" border="0" /></a><br />and less obvious in staff notation, so it is recommended that the piano keyboard pattern of white and black notes in one octave (from C to C) be memorized.<br /><br />***<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3b67TPFKnjX04umBRUfZnjuijR6UO4SJqyfJGBApIVxdNImngb063FjD2UcwmD7Ear4HpsbbRy3gViKN8T9RFYf0pwwZ5CvXndM_hSAPCNj24MRbqISB91Y1UM-WIy_MancrDKDMiqNdw/s1600-h/0540LydianCrop.png"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3b67TPFKnjX04umBRUfZnjuijR6UO4SJqyfJGBApIVxdNImngb063FjD2UcwmD7Ear4HpsbbRy3gViKN8T9RFYf0pwwZ5CvXndM_hSAPCNj24MRbqISB91Y1UM-WIy_MancrDKDMiqNdw/s400/0540LydianCrop.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213516456938847394" border="0" /></a><br />The F Lydian Mode or Scale, above, can be solfeged as<br /><br />Do Re Mi Fi Sol La Ti Do (where Fi is understood to mean "raised Fa").<br /><br />Notice that<br /><br />Do-Re is a whole step<br />Re-Mi is a whole step<br />Mi-Fi is a whole step<br /><br />for a total distance interval known as the "tritone" (3 whole steps)<br /><br />Tritones can sound so unusal that they were dubbed "Diabolus in Musica" -- "The Devil in Music"!<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBPn22SB7-lY0AYUaV1PTRHEbTQniPLcWtlMZcKrgdIeVKJWEJRY0PK_D7kaUEHbN0ttVdTvmdTAQw3gwAhiC-wACCDA7VT4Xdm3QqT2iUEpA90ZVdzITMcrz5b7m9V6NxD4tfEkugtZE7/s1600-h/0540F+Major+Scale.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgBPn22SB7-lY0AYUaV1PTRHEbTQniPLcWtlMZcKrgdIeVKJWEJRY0PK_D7kaUEHbN0ttVdTvmdTAQw3gwAhiC-wACCDA7VT4Xdm3QqT2iUEpA90ZVdzITMcrz5b7m9V6NxD4tfEkugtZE7/s400/0540F+Major+Scale.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213517368699127058" border="0" /></a><br />The collection of notes can become F Major with the addition of a key signature (accidental[s] placed at the beginning of the staff, just after the clef) of one flat. The fourth note of the scale will now be Bb -- restoring the half step beween Mi and Fa.<br /><br />The F Major solfege is identical to C Major, or anty other Major, sofege:<br /><br />Do Re Mi Fa Sol La Ti Do,<br /><br />with that same intervalic content of<br /><br />WWHWWWH<br /><br />[1997 Cameroon Settled / 1994 Berbers in Algeria]Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-46103290846377388541990-01-01T08:21:00.001-08:002012-06-19T00:10:35.924-07:00France (c. 18,000 BC) - Chordophone - Pitch - C<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp2.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDLvXL7ixGI/AAAAAAAAEl4/j9V0lWI275U/s1600-h/000011BC18000trois_freresGeneral.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp2.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDLvXL7ixGI/AAAAAAAAEl4/j9V0lWI275U/s400/000011BC18000trois_freresGeneral.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5202483701184906338" border="0" /></a><br />[The Musical-Bow Shaman (above red arrow), surrounded by animals, in the Three Brothers Cave, France]<br /><br />The Cave of the Trois-Frères is one of the famous caves<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp3.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDLv_b7ixHI/AAAAAAAAEmA/iRcX_3QmWus/s1600-h/000011Francesatellite-image-of-france.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp3.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDLv_b7ixHI/AAAAAAAAEmA/iRcX_3QmWus/s400/000011Francesatellite-image-of-france.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5202484392674641010" border="0" /></a><br />in southwestern France known for its cave paintings.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp3.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDL2Xb7ixII/AAAAAAAAEmI/NopzFVcZigs/s1600-h/000011FranceAriegeDepartmentRoquefixade_village01.png"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp3.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDL2Xb7ixII/AAAAAAAAEmI/NopzFVcZigs/s400/000011FranceAriegeDepartmentRoquefixade_village01.png" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5202491402061268098" border="0" /></a><br />It is located in Montesquieu-Avantès, in the Ariège département.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp1.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDL5z77ixKI/AAAAAAAAEmY/445xhZR7vFQ/s1600-h/000011FranceBC18009VolpRiverRegionbardies-summer-view.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp1.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDL5z77ixKI/AAAAAAAAEmY/445xhZR7vFQ/s400/000011FranceBC18009VolpRiverRegionbardies-summer-view.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5202495190222423202" border="0" /></a><br />[Volp River region, summer view]<br /><br />The cave is part of a single cave-complex with the Tuc d'Audoubert, both galleries formed by the Volp River.<br /><br />The cave art has been variously dated from 18,000 to 13,000 BC.<br /><br />The location is named for the three sons of Comte Bégouen who discovered it in 1910. The drawings of the cave were made famous in the publications of the Abbé Henri Breuil.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp3.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDL4hb7ixJI/AAAAAAAAEmQ/CHTiWvQ9r-s/s1600-h/000011BC18000troisfreresshamanAndThreeBulls.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp3.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDL4hb7ixJI/AAAAAAAAEmQ/CHTiWvQ9r-s/s400/000011BC18000troisfreresshamanAndThreeBulls.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5202493772883215506" border="0" /></a><br />The musical bow, thought to be depicted here, is a simple string instrument (chordophone) consisting of a string supported by a flexible string bearer, usually made out of wood. Often, it is a normal archery bow used for music rather than as a weapon.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="http://bp0.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDL8Zr7ixLI/AAAAAAAAEmg/DzolndrR2qE/s1600-h/000011BC18000troisfreresMusicalBow.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="http://bp0.blogger.com/_9etVnS4R1As/SDL8Zr7ixLI/AAAAAAAAEmg/DzolndrR2qE/s400/000011BC18000troisfreresMusicalBow.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5202498037785740466" border="0" /></a><br />Although the bow is now thought of as a weapon, it is not clear whether it was used in this way originally. Musical bows are still used in a number of cultures today, almost all over the world.<br /><script language="JavaScript" src="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/audio-player.js"></script><br /><object type="application/x-shockwave-flash" data="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/player.swf" id="audioplayer1" height="24" width="290"><br /><param name="movie" value="http://www.erlingwold.com/audio/player.swf"><br /><param name="FlashVars" value="playerID=1&soundFile=http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/Zulu - Flutes and Musical Bow.mp3"><br /><param name="quality" value="high"><br /><param name="menu" value="false"><br /><param name="wmode" value="transparent"><br /></object><br /><br />[South Africa - <span style="font-style: italic;">Flutes and Musical Bow</span> (c. 1950)]<br /><br />A Botswana musical bow (and an aerial aerophone/idiophone) can be found at 8:11 in <span style="font-style: italic;">The Gods Must Be Crazy.</span><br /><br />The usual way to make the bow sound is to pluck the string, although sometimes a subsidiary bow is used to scrape the string, much as on a violin.<br /><br />The most usual type of resonator consists of a gourd attached to the back of the string bearer. The bow may also be stood in a pit or gourd on the ground, or one end of it may be partially placed in the mouth. This last method allows the size of the resonator to be varied as the instrument is played, thus allowing a melody of notes produced by the changing resonances produced by the player's mouth.<br /><br />***<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuYzIMqpGZBYL3Oj-MFbf4QTkZ6_km5omjcroQX-JTw7fnzPlmsp0rpV2vD3OrcBzvBU7WoowJeoDLase1P66B00T1m2c0W_E3bqZQIOuYVrlMxEOFOCW_boBNMfm0S5jUObI5O6N3_xzX/s1600-h/000016SouthAmericaChordophones.jpeg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiuYzIMqpGZBYL3Oj-MFbf4QTkZ6_km5omjcroQX-JTw7fnzPlmsp0rpV2vD3OrcBzvBU7WoowJeoDLase1P66B00T1m2c0W_E3bqZQIOuYVrlMxEOFOCW_boBNMfm0S5jUObI5O6N3_xzX/s400/000016SouthAmericaChordophones.jpeg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212419464876184722" border="0" /></a><br />A chordophone is any musical instrument which produces sound primarily by way of a vibrating string or strings stretched between two points. It is one of the four main divisions of instruments in the original Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification.<br />What most westerners[citation needed] would call string instruments are classified as chordophones, violins, guitars, lyres, harps, for example. However, the word also embraces instruments that many westerners would hesitate to call string instruments, such as the musical bow and the piano (which, although sometimes called a string instrument, is also called a keyboard instrument and a percussion instrument).<br /><br />Hornbostel-Sachs divides chordophones into two main groups: instruments without a resonator that is an integral part of the instrument (which have the classification number 31); and instruments with such a resonator (which have the classification number 32). Most western instruments fall into the second group, but the piano and harpsichord fall into the first.<br /><br />Hornbostel and Sachs' criterion for determining which sub-group an instrument falls into is that if the resonator can be removed without destroying the instrument, then it is classified as 31. The idea that the piano's casing, which acts as a resonator, could be removed without destroying the instrument, may seem odd, but if the action and strings of the piano were taken out of its box, it could still be played. This is not true of the violin, because the string passes over a bridge located on the resonator box, so removing the resonator would mean the strings had no tension.<br /><br />Electric string instruments most of the time have an electromagnetic pickup with which the sound can be amplified. The Electric guitar is the most famous example, but there are new instruments like the overtone koto who make use of the new possibilities the pickupaddition offers.<br /><br />Chordophones make their sound when a stretched string vibrates. There is usually something that makes the sound reverberate such as the body of a guitar or violin. The strings are set into motion by either plucking (like a harp), strumming (like a guitar) or by rubbing with a bow (like a violin or cello). Some common chordophones are the banjo, the dulcimer, the fiddle, the guitar, the harp, the lute, the piano, the ukulele, the viola and the violin.<br /><br />***<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgq6a3909IDZ9rIJJeFysBck-gUwcdEelLDJD1vpAzwtrtqlHw1IOhWNwdlv6bCXXb__2NYt7NJtXmF5yHJnPhGj-EdOt0M_4BBC219Ut6HXfT439cJwiqe81O8etGGkwGdsveBpIUKf7Mg/s1600-h/000001CMajorScaleLetterNamesNoNoteheads.JPG.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgq6a3909IDZ9rIJJeFysBck-gUwcdEelLDJD1vpAzwtrtqlHw1IOhWNwdlv6bCXXb__2NYt7NJtXmF5yHJnPhGj-EdOt0M_4BBC219Ut6HXfT439cJwiqe81O8etGGkwGdsveBpIUKf7Mg/s400/000001CMajorScaleLetterNamesNoNoteheads.JPG.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212721811675753602" border="0" /></a><br />To notate music with changing pitches, a treble-cleff staff can be utilized, with some of the lines and spaces identified as above.<br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIwjjUJB05cGDEFKe_NJUS_G-YB2edeILG39FhQhtWbajbB7-O4ChfI-NrbD4Jbvg5ggSYEvuijbYPBPwPiyHTrO9kECMQL7FxBrN0rFh6B6JG-tt-liDm01IxQ8N5gTHvGyHWNrt_98AS/s1600-h/000001treble-clef-notesLinesAndSpaces.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiIwjjUJB05cGDEFKe_NJUS_G-YB2edeILG39FhQhtWbajbB7-O4ChfI-NrbD4Jbvg5ggSYEvuijbYPBPwPiyHTrO9kECMQL7FxBrN0rFh6B6JG-tt-liDm01IxQ8N5gTHvGyHWNrt_98AS/s400/000001treble-clef-notesLinesAndSpaces.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212722797407438242" border="0" /></a>Typically, rhythmic values will be placed on the staff, to be interpreted as various letter-name pitches (in this case, quarter notes).<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXwC80VlmB7aefmfp53dLcar1-m43x9VaaJacrHOJ5YPgKHAVsAHfSOqzl55bRj7TqjgAoEHLfxvSOxVg6a2W9yxHWpqhIo65TPSQ-uI54lhJMrhkQYyAt-EZJlRKUmP4R5ZDgo7pc-Lef/s1600-h/000001C-major_scaleBlueLetters.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXwC80VlmB7aefmfp53dLcar1-m43x9VaaJacrHOJ5YPgKHAVsAHfSOqzl55bRj7TqjgAoEHLfxvSOxVg6a2W9yxHWpqhIo65TPSQ-uI54lhJMrhkQYyAt-EZJlRKUmP4R5ZDgo7pc-Lef/s400/000001C-major_scaleBlueLetters.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212724132450960994" border="0" /></a>The C major scale is a particularly important collection of notes in Western music, and the notation on the staff (now in whole notes) corresponds to piano notes as given.<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXwHQ29CgaQ9NODi9lL37XnryOYn856gzVwqgvd2STlKpUqUk92ful2WXBWWolPTFY2xpbIxlyVQCrAAeJqJkJT5FWS9IlnX8F0RqgR2i9BBsZfT21GUARdJegZ1NOX_Va5VsFcs05SbkE/s1600-h/000001CMajorScaleNumbers.GIF"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXwHQ29CgaQ9NODi9lL37XnryOYn856gzVwqgvd2STlKpUqUk92ful2WXBWWolPTFY2xpbIxlyVQCrAAeJqJkJT5FWS9IlnX8F0RqgR2i9BBsZfT21GUARdJegZ1NOX_Va5VsFcs05SbkE/s400/000001CMajorScaleNumbers.GIF" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212725346477049874" border="0" /></a><br />This same scale can also be identified with Arabic numerals, showing the distance from the lowest note (the "1," "key-note," or "tonic") to any note above.<br /><br /><br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMYsCPhkRSiVtgAVBn_BuuaHf60w0jhykwNlhV8qY82khp2T91UV6hDWq0ABXos5XW9zp7DdRChKlqJ2TDSMlkN-QBwPaFmBpznrro-hhvA3zgtgqTo-8fPR_SvrE2f_H8FWIGYEnnUeZj/s1600-h/1902RodgersThe_Sound_of_Music_OBC_Album_Cover.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgMYsCPhkRSiVtgAVBn_BuuaHf60w0jhykwNlhV8qY82khp2T91UV6hDWq0ABXos5XW9zp7DdRChKlqJ2TDSMlkN-QBwPaFmBpznrro-hhvA3zgtgqTo-8fPR_SvrE2f_H8FWIGYEnnUeZj/s400/1902RodgersThe_Sound_of_Music_OBC_Album_Cover.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212726254686843762" border="0" /></a><br />Solfege syllables (do-re-mi) -- familiar to many from Richard Rodgers's <span style="font-style: italic;">The Sound of Music</span>,<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXHFR7Bp5l4HNbcaS2If0EcMq7k3URpTfU3Ig2f3wfrvAmFbd1ZG4wLGcoRe-y65I_Fp29ZJk0i7C9o9MgUBfVibJ3mPVKxg68f_CSucQ_VKa2uQTDOmAoTfLMbK1D_mdjjgRuK3Vsqkix/s1600-h/0991GuidoTheosophilusMonochord.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiXHFR7Bp5l4HNbcaS2If0EcMq7k3URpTfU3Ig2f3wfrvAmFbd1ZG4wLGcoRe-y65I_Fp29ZJk0i7C9o9MgUBfVibJ3mPVKxg68f_CSucQ_VKa2uQTDOmAoTfLMbK1D_mdjjgRuK3Vsqkix/s400/0991GuidoTheosophilusMonochord.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212726955148641922" border="0" /></a><br />and originally developed by Guido d'Arezzo (991-1033, on left, with aristocratic pupil to right) in his<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyTZZEWM1S192egEv643VfrKomWsmsvtUIfJUFJDHqk4zZyUbqFfRsP9FGLKIZS4uEauZ3UTlrOLdS8sSA_F4MRrpauc8RMn__govFpcy4KwNnK7Je-Q9c5QPJnwHH1yMGItzNjCL3fvw6/s1600-h/953GuidoHymnToStJohnClose.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyTZZEWM1S192egEv643VfrKomWsmsvtUIfJUFJDHqk4zZyUbqFfRsP9FGLKIZS4uEauZ3UTlrOLdS8sSA_F4MRrpauc8RMn__govFpcy4KwNnK7Je-Q9c5QPJnwHH1yMGItzNjCL3fvw6/s400/953GuidoHymnToStJohnClose.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212730693583786242" border="0" /></a><br /><span style="font-style: italic;">Hymn to St. John (Ut Queant Laxis)</span>, where each phrase, like the Richard Rodgers song, starts on the next pitch level up.<br /><script language="JavaScript" src="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/audio-player.js"></script><br /><object type="application/x-shockwave-flash" data="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/player.swf" id="audioplayer1" height="24" width="290"><br /><param name="movie" value="http://www.erlingwold.com/audio/player.swf"><br /><param name="FlashVars" value="playerID=1&soundFile=http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/Hymn to St. John_ Ut Queant Laxis.mp3"><br /><param name="quality" value="high"><br /><param name="menu" value="false"><br /><param name="wmode" value="transparent"><br /></object><br /><br />Somehow over the years the "Ut" changed to "Do" (it had something to do with another sight-singing system that used the first syllable of "domine") and "Ti" was added (to this day, the French sing "Si").<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijHswD9S6URYlcO-Y7xxJWzGlSQOOrm6w-mG66Md8j_Epbe069Gon25n0yURZDigCqMm5lu9zNnw9sV57RVFcH0js4pmynkK9G1xM3TLpu2oqvM10xpY4ymEjBxf8lP16Xpmg8VFUjWU3P/s1600-h/000001CMajorSolfege.gif"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijHswD9S6URYlcO-Y7xxJWzGlSQOOrm6w-mG66Md8j_Epbe069Gon25n0yURZDigCqMm5lu9zNnw9sV57RVFcH0js4pmynkK9G1xM3TLpu2oqvM10xpY4ymEjBxf8lP16Xpmg8VFUjWU3P/s400/000001CMajorSolfege.gif" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212731805269552962" border="0" /></a><br />The C Major scale can be sung to the solfege syllables as indicated.<br /><br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCB1TWQ3c7e3OMUoVsXIzjF88W21fwnDI3ZnJIXWl5geGoFaUZUJFmT-p4ea3dt7mMysepvlq3a3LhQbMV4SPjmUKNa9beJtZLgKhZ2Mgvv3-tnGcCA3JjCWWgJefAmty2GG2TTZPPw3GA/s1600-h/000001Treblespaces.JPG.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjCB1TWQ3c7e3OMUoVsXIzjF88W21fwnDI3ZnJIXWl5geGoFaUZUJFmT-p4ea3dt7mMysepvlq3a3LhQbMV4SPjmUKNa9beJtZLgKhZ2Mgvv3-tnGcCA3JjCWWgJefAmty2GG2TTZPPw3GA/s400/000001Treblespaces.JPG.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213110650335684706" border="0" /></a><br />Another way to remember the spaces and<br /><br /><br /><a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdJFPXle4Al9E47qJLuZcCVJM8IfQQjkeCMrOh2Xp__r-7qZkaOUtOyW-jVI6vGedpIIR7rlj44eBHw_SOpCkgijrWu8Ba4GrWr5AANqG6rYXD8yn7ZMAz7x8Yc6ZOCjaCS2J8tZsEP8ct/s1600-h/000001TrebleLines.JPG.jpg"><img style="margin: 0px auto 10px; display: block; text-align: center; cursor: pointer;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdJFPXle4Al9E47qJLuZcCVJM8IfQQjkeCMrOh2Xp__r-7qZkaOUtOyW-jVI6vGedpIIR7rlj44eBHw_SOpCkgijrWu8Ba4GrWr5AANqG6rYXD8yn7ZMAz7x8Yc6ZOCjaCS2J8tZsEP8ct/s400/000001TrebleLines.JPG.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213109979986233874" border="0" /></a>[others have been known to say, ..."deserves favor" or "fudge"...]<br /><br />lines in treble clef is given above -- however, it is recommended that one simply know the notes so well that their letter names instantly come to mind.<br /><br />***<br /><br />The tonic is the first note of a musical scale, the pitch upon which all other pitches of a piece are referenced.<br /><br />***<br /><br />In music, a melody (Greek- melōidía, "singing, chanting"), also tune, voice, or line, is a series of linear events or a succession, not a simultaneity as in a chord (see harmony). However, this succession must contain change of some kind and be perceived as a single entity to be called a melody. Most specifically this includes patterns of changing pitches and durations, while most generally it includes any interacting patterns of changing events or quality. "Melody is said to result where there are interacting patterns of changing events occurring in time."<br /><br />Change is necessary for events "to be understood as related or unrelated." Melodies often consist of one or more musical phrases, motifs, and are usually repeated throughout a song or piece in various forms. Melodies may also be described by their melodic motion or the pitches or the intervals between pitches (predominantly conjuct [smooth] or disjunct [jumpy] or with further restrictions), pitch range, tension and release, continuity and coherence, cadence, and shape. "<br /><br />The essential elements of any melody are duration and pitch.<br /><br />[1994 Berbers in Algeria / 1990 France Chordophones Pitch / 1988 Senegal]Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-46489057234582297071988-05-23T15:50:00.000-07:002013-08-24T13:18:07.179-07:00Senegal (c. 20,000 BC) - Percussion - Rhythm<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYRQxYQABbkjNx5sRxIfgx519y_U5Qjb155tpycCL2Emy9CHj7L5GC9caLEns175Ry4mPmlTkkRRb1OT8VzUvC8Yu2nMGGbWQ1P1EQ_atsDVoz84Ye9Da1_QzDNJUz0oDKOdarHSMyoMU/s1600-h/000003Senegalsatellite-image-of-senegal.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5203718699048203586" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYRQxYQABbkjNx5sRxIfgx519y_U5Qjb155tpycCL2Emy9CHj7L5GC9caLEns175Ry4mPmlTkkRRb1OT8VzUvC8Yu2nMGGbWQ1P1EQ_atsDVoz84Ye9Da1_QzDNJUz0oDKOdarHSMyoMU/s400/000003Senegalsatellite-image-of-senegal.jpg" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center;" /></a><br />
Senegal is south of the Sénégal River in Western Africa, bounded by the Atlantic Ocean to the west, Mauritania to the north, Mali to the east, and Guinea and Guinea-Bissau to the south. The Gambia lies almost entirely within Senegal, surrounded on the north, east and south; from its western coast, Gambia's territory follows the Gambia River more than 186 miles inland. Dakar is the capital city of Senegal, located on the Cape Verde Peninsula on the country's Atlantic coast.<br />
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Archaeological findings throughout the area indicate that Senegal was inhabited in prehistoric times.<br />
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Prehistory is a term often used to describe the period before written history. Paul Tournal originally coined the term Pré-historique in describing the finds he had made in the caves of southern France. It came into use in French in the 1830's to describe the time before writing, and was introduced into English by Daniel Wilson in 1851.<br />
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Prehistory can be said to date back to the beginning of the universe itself, although the term is most often used to describe periods when there was life on Earth; dinosaurs can be described as prehistoric animals and cavemen are described as prehistoric people. Usually the context implies what geologic or prehistoric time period is discussed, e.g. "Middle Palaeolithic Homo sapiens," 20,0000 years ago.<br />
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[Village near Podor]<br />
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Senegal - <span style="font-style: italic;">Greetings from Podor</span><br />
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[19th-Century French fort at Podor]<br />
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Podor is the northernmost town in Senegal, Africa, lying on Morfil Island between the Sénégal River and Doué River.<br />
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[Idiophones from Southeast Asia]<br />
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A solid-body percussion instrument, or idiophone, is any musical instrument which creates sound primarily by way of the instrument vibrating itself, without the use of strings or membranes. It is one of the four main divisions in the original Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification. Idiophones are probably the oldest type of musical instrument (not counting the human voice). In the early classification of Victor-Charles Mahillon, this group of instruments was called autophones.<br />
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Most percussion instruments which are not drums are idiophones. Hornbostel-Sachs divides idiophones into four main sub-categories. The first division is the struck idiophones (sometimes called concussion idiophones). This includes most of the non-drum percussion instruments familiar in the west. They include all idiophones which are made to vibrate by being hit, either directly with a stick or hand (like the wood block, singing bowl, triangle or marimba), or indirectly, by way of a scraping or shaking motion (like maracas or flexatone).<br />
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Various types of bells fall into both categories.<br />
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The other three sub-divisions are rarer. They are plucked idiophones, such as the jew's harp, amplified cactus, music box or mbira (thumb piano); blown idiophones, of which there are a very small number of examples, the Aeolsklavier being one; and friction idiophones, such as the singing bowl, glass harmonica, glass harp, turntable, verrophone, daxophone, styrophone, musical saw, or nail violin (a number of pieces of metal or wood rubbed with a bow).<br />
A number of idiophones that are normally struck, such as vibraphone bars and cymbals, can also be bowed.<br />
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The drum, or membranophone, consists of at least one membrane, called a drumhead or drum skin, that is stretched over a shell and struck, either directly with parts of a player's body, or with some sort of implement such as a drumstick, to produce sound. Drums are the world's oldest and most ubiquitous musical instruments, and the basic design has remained virtually unchanged for thousands of years. Most drums are considered "untuned instruments."<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYX4VGJdICkaD0cmZacX5BJ_JYa88xAnjCdbs8qLnQPeZ16SY_znNANBOf2eUUo344gl5_elk1zuzthdZSpyd2S7fNUakTCDvygKd5sEC95HQcsrjp-qbbcj5K0eUknFeWmyioCL3G-to/s1600/000003a04SenegalDrumMakersClose.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="215" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiYX4VGJdICkaD0cmZacX5BJ_JYa88xAnjCdbs8qLnQPeZ16SY_znNANBOf2eUUo344gl5_elk1zuzthdZSpyd2S7fNUakTCDvygKd5sEC95HQcsrjp-qbbcj5K0eUknFeWmyioCL3G-to/s320/000003a04SenegalDrumMakersClose.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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The shell almost invariably has a circular opening over which the drumhead is stretched, but the shape of the remainder of the shell varies widely. In the western musical tradition, the most usual shape is a cylinder, although timpani, for example, use bowl-shaped shells. Other shapes include a frame design (tar, Bodhrán), truncated cones (bongo drums, Ashiko), goblet shaped (djembe), and joined truncated cones (talking drum).<br />
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Drums with cylindrical shells can be open at one end (as is the case with timbales), or can have two drum heads. Single-headed drums normally consist of a skin which is stretched over an enclosed space, or over one of the ends of a hollow vessel. Drums with two heads covering both ends of a cylindrical shell often have a small hole somewhat halfway between the two heads; the shell forms a resonating chamber for the resulting sound. Exceptions include the African slit drum, made from a hollowed-out tree trunk, and the Caribbean steel drum, made from a metal barrel. Drums with two heads can also have a set of wires, called snares, held across the bottom head, top head, or both heads, hence the name snare drum.<br />
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Prior to the invention of tension rods drum skins were attached and tuned by rope systems such as that used on the Djembe or pegs and ropes such as that used on Ewe Drums.<br />
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Several factors determine the sound a drum produces, including the type of shell the drum has, the type of drumheads it has, and the tension of the drumheads. Different drum sounds have different uses in music. For example, a jazz drummer may want drums that sound crisp, clean, and a little on the soft side, whereas a rock and roll drummer may prefer drums that sound loud and deep. Because these drummers want different sounds, their drums will be constructed differently.<br />
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The drumhead has the most effect on how a drum sounds. Each type of drumhead serves its own musical purpose and has its own unique sound. Thicker drumheads are lower-pitched and can be very loud. Drumheads with a white plastic coating on them muffle the overtones of the drumhead slightly, producing a less diverse pitch. Drumheads with central silver or black dots tend to muffle the overtones even more. And drumheads with perimeter sound rings mostly eliminate overtones . Some jazz drummers avoid using thick drumheads, preferring double ply drumheads or drumheads with perimeter sound rings. Rock drummers often prefer the thicker or coated drumheads.<br />
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The second biggest factor affecting the sound produced by a drum is the tension at which the drumhead is held against the shell of the drum. When the hoop is placed around the drumhead and shell and tightened down with bolts, the tension of the head can be adjusted. When the tension is increased, the amplitude of the sound is reduced and the frequency is increased, making the pitch higher and the volume lower.<br />
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The type of shell also affects the sound of a drum. Because the vibrations resonate in the shell of the drum, the shell can be used to increase the volume and to manipulate the type of sound produced. The larger the diameter of the shell, the lower the pitch of the drum will be. The type of wood is important as well. Birch generates a bright, crisp, and clean sound, maple reproduces the frequency of the drumhead as it resonates and has a warm, wholesome sound while mahogany raises the frequency of low pitches and keeps higher frequencies at about the same speed. When choosing a set of shells, a jazz drummer may want smaller maple shells, while a rock drummer may want larger birch shells. For more information about tuning drums or the physics of a drum, visit the external links listed below.<br />
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Drums are usually played by the hands, or by one or two sticks. In many traditional cultures drums have a symbolic function and are often used in religious ceremonies. Drums are often used in music therapy, especially hand drums, because of their tactile nature and easy use by a wide variety of people.<br />
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The earliest known drum-like instrument is from Mezhirich, near Kiev, Ukraine, and dates back to approximately 15,000 years ago. The instrument was found at the site of the oldest known house, constructed of mammoth bones. They were found in 1965 by a farmer digging a new basement six feet below the ground. The drum-like instrument is a hollow mammoth skull with signs of wear from being hit by mammoth bones decorated with red paint.<br />
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In the past drums have been used not only for their musical qualities, but also as a means of communication, especially through signals. The talking drums of Africa can imitate the inflections and pitch variations of a spoken language and are used for communicating over great distances. Throughout Sri Lankan history drums have been used for communication between the state and the community, and Sri Lankan drums have a history stretching back over 2500 years. Japanese troops used Taiko drums to motivate troops, to help set a marching pace, and to call out orders or announcements. Fife-and-drum corps of Swiss mercenary foot soldiers also used drums. They used an early version of the snare drum carried over the player's right shoulder, suspended by a strap (typically played with one hand using traditional grip). It is to this instrument that English word "drum" was first used.<br />
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Rhythm (from Greek - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement, symmetry") is the variation of the length and accentuation of a series of sounds or other events.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhc81dX8IhyphenhyphencPr7pG4xujLYJPMtW8-cDBvl5C2LNctHaHFb93QA8pz9mX8IHgxqpGnmhIRaU2CxdQFh0f1x83AZW6L_ZAX3XaDeQkNzmLy8ekCU8sObEJYkXs6trNsAWkspxGi5DadSJew/s1600/000003a05-000008SyriaNotationEarly.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="153" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhc81dX8IhyphenhyphencPr7pG4xujLYJPMtW8-cDBvl5C2LNctHaHFb93QA8pz9mX8IHgxqpGnmhIRaU2CxdQFh0f1x83AZW6L_ZAX3XaDeQkNzmLy8ekCU8sObEJYkXs6trNsAWkspxGi5DadSJew/s320/000003a05-000008SyriaNotationEarly.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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The earliest performable notation comes from Iraq, West Asia (Sumeria, 1400 BC), using letter names for pitch (Korea, in Northwest Asia, developed a related notion).<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikLJseC3VRICyokELiegKGu6-oBUHRVVykIjnvRZJXIfDoRnXFVtfKRJktxSN1ph0sY1tl5iXY9t2LGTrmq06wyzI2dHz1u-84BQkTRLUxVPY-HQrMwPX3ObNNav0ajwWGgMsJj4IkCJc/s1600/000003a06-0540NeumesNoLines.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEikLJseC3VRICyokELiegKGu6-oBUHRVVykIjnvRZJXIfDoRnXFVtfKRJktxSN1ph0sY1tl5iXY9t2LGTrmq06wyzI2dHz1u-84BQkTRLUxVPY-HQrMwPX3ObNNav0ajwWGgMsJj4IkCJc/s1600/000003a06-0540NeumesNoLines.jpg" /></a></div>
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In Western Europe, a repeating 7-letter notation (ABCDEFGABC....) became supplemented by graphics. Medieval monks began with squiggles called neumes, read left to right through time, with pitch depicted as high or low on the page.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUGBqIc0CAVudbz1vW2TALdUKvchNgR0tfbonOxN9fnpiqHpQaKdhcpmh0wALSfQJ9GQZb89mQPd_rM8EvOwegfJ4RVY4JxZLgw53TVvd3Z_OmpkqljIypy7La00ZpXtBmwf93xp2KfD4W/s1600-h/0540Gregory04KyrieManuscript.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212401871091183602" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjUGBqIc0CAVudbz1vW2TALdUKvchNgR0tfbonOxN9fnpiqHpQaKdhcpmh0wALSfQJ9GQZb89mQPd_rM8EvOwegfJ4RVY4JxZLgw53TVvd3Z_OmpkqljIypy7La00ZpXtBmwf93xp2KfD4W/s400/0540Gregory04KyrieManuscript.jpg" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center;" /></a><br />
Horizontal staff lines were added, with a clef, specifying a pitch,<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPejDOvz-P8o8ZtNTifKSaEVPoKcun5evmBrknpRSNbzLeu92CWEhSfQEGICdVPOB6QlzLvc-JzN4mzQQv7avrNjIXsKVRyK1r2j-wSxbedTx3zKZELId7FrJPOxUCadpxj_vhVjNCnIHM/s1600-h/000001Earlytrebleclef.gif" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212402990063549186" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhPejDOvz-P8o8ZtNTifKSaEVPoKcun5evmBrknpRSNbzLeu92CWEhSfQEGICdVPOB6QlzLvc-JzN4mzQQv7avrNjIXsKVRyK1r2j-wSxbedTx3zKZELId7FrJPOxUCadpxj_vhVjNCnIHM/s400/000001Earlytrebleclef.gif" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center;" /></a><br />
such as "G," for high (treble) singers.<br />
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A clef (from the French for "key") is a musical symbol used to indicate the pitch of written notes.<br />
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Placed on one of the lines at the beginning of the staff, it indicates the name and pitch of the notes on that line. This line serves as a reference point by which the names of the notes on any other line or space of the staff may be determined.<br />
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These days, the curlicues of the G-clef are almost invariably placed on the second line (from the bottom) of the staff, and is called the "treble clef." This is by far the most common clef used today, and the only G-clef still in use. For this reason, the terms G-clef and treble clef are basically seen as synonymous. It was formerly also known as the "violin clef."<br />
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This clef is used for the bagpipes, violin, flutes, oboe, English horn, all clarinets, all saxophones, horn, euphonium (occasionally), trumpet, guitar, vibraphone, xylophone and handbells; for the upper part of keyboard instruments like the piano, organ, harp, and harpsichord (of which the lower part is usually written in the bass clef); for the highest notes played by the cello (the old convention was to write an octave higher, unless preceded by a tenor clef), bassoon, trombone (which otherwise use the bass and tenor clefs), and viola (which otherwise uses the alto clef); and for the soprano, mezzo-soprano, alto, and tenor voices.<br />
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Squarish neumes with four lines became notes on a five-line staff.<br />
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Quarter notes (and their equivalent silent counterparts known as rests) often receive one "beat" or time unit, at any designated speed (tempo, time).<br />
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Vertical bar lines were added for measured intervals of time -- the space between bar lines called a "measure." Repeat signs save space, thin double bars end sections, and double bars end pieces.<br />
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The repeated notes in <span style="font-style: italic;">Greetings from Podor</span>, could be notated as Middle C Quarter Notes. As the main notes of the piece, they could also be called "I" or "Do." This C is on a ledger line, just below the five-note staff...<br />
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Middle C is indeed roughly in the center of a piano keyboard. Any note adjacent to the left of a "gang of two" black notes will be a C.<br />
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2/4, 3/4, and 4/4 are meters (time signature). All the notes above are High C's, one octave (eight white notes above Middle C).<br />
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"3/4" means 3 beats per measure, with the quarter (1/4) note getting the beat.<br />
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The above example shows quarter notes, eighths (half as long as quarters), and sixteenth notes (half as long as eighths).<br />
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Other important notes and rests include the half (twice as long as a quarter)<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVQtyZe4z0A9tqUfwKsOGC7mp4FG5sRw2UrlZVfHKvZYm9tE7RqOL5wbL0qB4d8yqA-Xc_-wBCois0zwRl4T_bcXvSb5mqSJy4SM34HNnqCeFMeASUt-PCwN2GmxNjllpb7GHC8qUeRG-L/s1600-h/000001Whole_note_and_rest.png" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212691893106584050" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVQtyZe4z0A9tqUfwKsOGC7mp4FG5sRw2UrlZVfHKvZYm9tE7RqOL5wbL0qB4d8yqA-Xc_-wBCois0zwRl4T_bcXvSb5mqSJy4SM34HNnqCeFMeASUt-PCwN2GmxNjllpb7GHC8qUeRG-L/s400/000001Whole_note_and_rest.png" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center;" /></a>and the whole (twice as long as a half, four times as long as a quarter).<br />
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Tempo (Italian for 'time, movement') is the speed or pace of a given piece. It is an extremely crucial element of sound, as it can affect the mood and difficulty of a piece.<br />
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The plural of tempo in Italian is tempi. Some writers employ this plural when writing in English. Others use the native English plural tempos. Standard dictionaries reflect both usages.<br />
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The tempo of a piece will typically be written at the start of a piece of music, and is usually indicated in beats per minute (mm metronome marks). This means that a particular note value (for example, a quarter note) is specified as the beat, and the marking indicates that a certain number of these beats must be played per minute. The greater the tempo, the larger the number of beats that must be played in a minute is and, therefore, the faster a piece must be played. Mathematical tempo markings of this kind became increasingly popular during the first half of the 19th century, after the metronome had been invented by Johann Nepomuk Mälzel, although early metronomes were somewhat inconsistent. Some people consider Beethoven's metronome markings, in particular, to be notoriously unreliable.<br />
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As an alternative to metronome markings, some 20th century composers (such as Béla Bartók and John Cage) would give the total execution time of a piece, from which the proper tempo can be roughly derived.<br />
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Whether a music piece has a mathematical time indication or not, in classical music it is customary to describe the tempo of a piece by one or more words. Most of these words are Italian, a result of the fact that many of the most important composers of the 17th century were Italian, and this period was when tempo indications were used extensively for the first time.<br />
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Before the metronome, words were the only way to describe the tempo of a composition. Yet after the metronome's invention, these words continued to be used, often additionally indicating the mood of the piece, thus blurring the traditional distinction between tempo and mood indicators. For example, presto and allegro both indicate a speedy execution (presto being faster), but allegro also connotes joy (from its original meaning in Italian). Presto, on the other hand, indicates speed as such (while possibly connoting virtuosity, a connotation it did not acquire until the late 18th century).<br />
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Additional Italian words also indicate tempo and mood. For example, the "agitato" in the Allegro agitato of the last movement of George Gershwin's piano concerto in F has both a tempo indication (undoubtedly faster than a usual Allegro) and a mood indication ("agitated").<br />
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In some cases (quite often up to the end of the Baroque period), conventions governing musical composition were so strong that no tempo had to be indicated. For example, the first movement of Bach's <span style="font-style: italic;">Brandenburg Concerto No. 3</span> has no tempo or mood indication whatsoever.<br />
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To provide movement names, publishers of recordings resort to ad hoc measures, for instance marking the <span style="font-style: italic;">Brandenburg</span> movements "Allegro," "(Allegro)," "(Without indication)," and so on.<br />
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In Renaissance music most music was understood to flow at a tempo defined by the tactus, roughly the rate of the human heartbeat. Which note value corresponded to the tactus was indicated by the mensural time signature.<br />
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Often a particular musical form or genre implies its own tempo, so no further explanation is placed in the score. Thus musicians expect a minuet to be performed at a fairly stately tempo, slower than a Viennese waltz; a Perpetuum Mobile to be quite fast, and so on. Genres can be used to imply tempos; thus Ludwig van Beethoven wrote "In tempo d'un Menuetto" over the first movement of his <span style="font-style: italic;">Piano Sonata,</span> Op. 54, although that movement is not a minuet. Popular music charts use terms such as "bossa nova", "ballad", and "Latin rock" in much the same way.<br />
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It is important to remember when interpreting these words that not only have tempos changed over historical time, and even in different places, but sometimes even the ordering of terms has changed. Thus a modern largo is slower than an adagio, but in the Baroque period it was faster.<br />
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From fastest to slowest, the common tempo markings are:<br />
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Prestissimo - extremely fast<br />
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Vivacissimamente - adverb of vivacissimo, "very quickly and lively"<br />
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Vivacissimo - very fast and lively<br />
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Presto - very fast<br />
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Allegrissimo - very fast<br />
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Vivo - lively and fast<br />
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Vivace - lively and fast<br />
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Allegro (Italian "happy") - fast and bright<br />
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Allegro moderato - moderately quick<br />
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Allegretto (a "little allegro") - moderately fast (but less so than allegro)<br />
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Allegretto grazioso - moderately fast and with grace<br />
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Moderato - moderately<br />
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Moderato con espressivo - moderately with expression<br />
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Andantino - alternatively faster or slower than andante (a rather ambiguous tempo)<br />
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Andante - at a walking pace<br />
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Tranquillamente - adverb of tranquillo, "tranquilly"<br />
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Tranquillo - tranquil<br />
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Adagietto - rather slow<br />
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Adagio - slow and stately (literally, "at ease")<br />
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Grave - slow and solemn<br />
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Larghetto - rather broadly<br />
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Largo - Very slow, very similar to lento<br />
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Lento - very slow<br />
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Largamente/Largo - "broadly," very slow<br />
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Larghissimo - very slow<br />
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Other terms include:<br />
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Marcato - marching tempo<br />
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Misterioso - mysteriously<br />
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Tempo commodo - at a comfortable speed<br />
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Tempo giusto - at a consistent, or exact, speed<br />
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L'istesso tempo - at the same speed (as before)<br />
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Non troppo - not too much (e.g. Allegro ma non troppo, "fast but not too much")<br />
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Assai - rather, very, enough as is needed (e.g. Adagio assai)<br />
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Con - with (e.g. Andante con moto, "at a walking pace with motion")<br />
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Molto - much, very (e.g. Molto allegro)<br />
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Poco - a little (e.g. Poco allegro)<br />
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Quasi - as if (e.g. Più allegro quasi presto, "faster, as if presto")<br />
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tempo di... - the speed of a ... (e.g. Tempo di valse (speed of a waltz), Tempo di marzo/marcia (speed of a march))<br />
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All of these markings are based on a few root words such as allegro, largo, adagio, vivace, presto, andante, and lento. By adding the -issimo ending the word is amplified, by adding the -ino ending the word is diminished, and by adding the -etto ending the word is endeared. Many tempos also can be translated with the same meaning, and it is up to the player to interpret the speed that best suits the period, composer, and individual work.<br />
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Common qualifiers<br />
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assai - very, very much, as in Allegro assai (but also understood by some as "enough")<br />
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con brio - with vigour or spirit<br />
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con moto - with movement<br />
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non troppo - not too much, e.g. Allegro non troppo (or Allegro ma non troppo) means "Fast, but not too much."<br />
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non tanto - not so much<br />
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molto - much, very, as in Molto allegro (very fast and bright) or Adagio molto<br />
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poco - slightly, little, as in Poco adagio<br />
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più - more, as in Più allegro; used as a relative indication when the tempo changes<br />
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meno - less, as in Meno presto<br />
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poco a poco - little by little<br />
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In addition to the common allegretto, composers freely apply Italian diminutive and superlative suffixes to various tempo indications: andantino, larghetto, adagietto, and larghissimo.<br />
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Some markings that primarily mark a mood (or character) also have a tempo connotation:<br />
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Agitato - agitated, with implied quickness<br />
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Appasionato - to play passionately<br />
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Dolce - sweetly<br />
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Espressivo - expressively<br />
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Furioso - to play in an angry or furious manner<br />
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Giocoso - merrily<br />
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Maestoso - majestic or stately (which generally indicates a solemn, slow movement)<br />
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Morendo - dying<br />
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Sostenuto - sustained, sometimes with a slackening of tempo<br />
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Scherzando - playful<br />
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Vivace - lively and fast<br />
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Composers may use expressive marks to adjust the tempo:<br />
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Accelerando - speeding up (abbreviation: accel.)<br />
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Allargando - growing broader; decreasing tempo, usually near the end of a piece<br />
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Meno mosso - less movement or slower<br />
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Mosso - movement, more lively, or quicker, much like più mosso, but not as extreme<br />
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Più mosso - more movement or faster<br />
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Rallentando - slowing down, especially near the end of a section (abbreviation: rall.)<br />
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Ritardando - slowing down (abbreviation: rit. or more specifically, ritard.)<br />
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Ritenuto - slightly slower; temporarily holding back. (Note that the abbreviation for ritardando can also be rit. Thus a more specific abbreviation is riten. Also sometimes ritenuto does not reflect a tempo change but a character change instead.)<br />
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Rubato - free adjustment of tempo for expressive purposes<br />
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Stretto - rushing ahead; temporarily speeding up<br />
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Stringendo - pressing on faster<br />
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While the base tempo indication (such as allegro) appears in large type above the staff, these adjustments typically appear below the staff or (in the case of keyboard instrument) in the middle of the grand staff.<br />
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They generally designate a gradual change in tempo; for immediate tempo shifts, composers normally just provide the designation for the new tempo. (Note, however, that when Più Mosso or Meno Mosso appears in large type above the staff, it functions as a new tempo, and thus implies an immediate change.) Several terms control how large and how gradual this change are:<br />
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poco a poco - bit by bit, gradually<br />
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subito - suddenly<br />
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poco - a little<br />
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molto - a lot<br />
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assai - quite a lot, very<br />
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After a tempo change, a composer may return to a previous tempo in two different ways:<br />
a tempo - returns to the base tempo after an adjustment (e.g. "ritardando ... a tempo" undoes the effect of the ritardando).<br />
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Tempo primo or Tempo I - denotes an immediate return to the piece's original base tempo after a section in a different tempo (e.g. "Allegro ... Lento ... Tempo I" indicates a return to the Allegro). This indication often functions as a structural marker in pieces in binary form.<br />
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These terms also indicate an immediate, not a gradual, tempo change. Although they are Italian, composers typically use them even if they have written their initial tempo marking in some other language.<br />
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Although Italian has been the prevalent language for tempo markings throughout most of classical music history, many composers have written tempo indications in their own language.<br />
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Several composers have written markings in French, among them baroque composers François Couperin and Jean-Philippe Rameau as well as Claude Debussy, Olivier Messiaen, Maurice Ravel and Alexander Scriabin. Common tempo markings in French are:<br />
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Rapide - fast<br />
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Vite - fast<br />
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Vif - lively<br />
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Très - very, as in Très vif (very lively)<br />
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Modéré - at a moderate tempo<br />
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Moins - less, as in Moins vite (less fast)<br />
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Lent - slowly<br />
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Grave - slowly and solemnly<br />
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Au mouvement - play the (first or main) tempo.<br />
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Many composers (including Gustav Mahler and Arnold Schoenberg) have used German tempo markings. Typical German tempo markings are:<br />
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Schnell — fast<br />
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Rasch — quickly<br />
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Lebhaft — lively (mood)<br />
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Mäßig — moderately<br />
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Langsam — slowly<br />
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One of the first German composers to use tempo markings in his native language was Ludwig van Beethoven. The one using the most elaborate combined tempo and mood markings was probably Gustav Mahler. For example, the second movement of his <span style="font-style: italic;">Symphony No. 9</span> is marked Im tempo eines gemächlichen Ländlers, etwas täppisch und sehr derb, indicating a slowish folk-dance–like movement, with some awkwardness and vulgarity in the execution. Mahler would also sometimes combine German tempo markings with traditional Italian markings, as in the first movement of his <span style="font-style: italic;">Symphony No. 6</span>, marked Allegro energico, ma non troppo. Heftig, aber markig.<br />
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English indications, for example quickly, have also been used, by Benjamin Britten and Percy Grainger, among many others.<br />
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***<br />
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Meter is a concept related to an underlying division of time, the measurement of a musical line into measures of stressed and unstressed "beats," indicated in Western music notation by a symbol called a time signature.<br />
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Ametric music includes chant, some graphically scored works since the 1950's, and non-European music such as Honkyoku repertoire for shakuhachi.<br />
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Polymeter or Polyrhythm is the use of two or more metric frameworks simultaneously, or in regular alternation<br />
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[1990 France Pitch / 1988 Senegal Rhythm / 1987 France Aerophone]Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-29981199214524003401987-01-01T13:00:00.000-08:002013-08-24T14:24:40.991-07:00France (c. 28,000 BC) - Horn - Aerophone<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnrZcqgDU_oe76KY7JVkDuQx9v-iN0k9GnPFrsx-VVU_Q2sUg2NbhIN4C1hPM-JroOqnwvRzeQR6a8UDIxIIqBuJFhAvlX_n2M3b1OHtCp86_s7Nv7D_xMBFvYkySpn-uEVLBWpLT5rp4/s1600/000001b01-000011FranceVenusWithHornClose.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgnrZcqgDU_oe76KY7JVkDuQx9v-iN0k9GnPFrsx-VVU_Q2sUg2NbhIN4C1hPM-JroOqnwvRzeQR6a8UDIxIIqBuJFhAvlX_n2M3b1OHtCp86_s7Nv7D_xMBFvYkySpn-uEVLBWpLT5rp4/s320/000001b01-000011FranceVenusWithHornClose.jpg" width="236" /></a></div>
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The Venus of Laussel is a Venus figurine, a 1.5 foot high limestone bas-relief of a nude female figure, painted with red ochre, and is approximately 28,000 years old (Aurignacian).<br />
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<br />
[Anonymous French (b. c. 1170)<br />
<span style="font-style: italic;">La Seconde Estampie Real</span> (c. 1200]<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpTw4dBdV2X6nDQdWraZyUDZVxeyhmbppoRb3wWfPoDeo0f0yPz5714wwoCgsUDDiADhCHE-OgUSliC2xJD8KbUE06C_5zqHoKqj69WSW9-I1FqkMCujTWhaD6XlFjzsHahkbCpglOg4E/s1600/000001b02-000011FranceWisent.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="205" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpTw4dBdV2X6nDQdWraZyUDZVxeyhmbppoRb3wWfPoDeo0f0yPz5714wwoCgsUDDiADhCHE-OgUSliC2xJD8KbUE06C_5zqHoKqj69WSW9-I1FqkMCujTWhaD6XlFjzsHahkbCpglOg4E/s320/000001b02-000011FranceWisent.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
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<br />
The figure holds a wisent horn...<br />
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[The wisent (pronounced /ˈviːzənt/), or European bison (Bison bonasus), is a bison species and the heaviest surviving land animal in Europe. A typical wisent is about 2.9 m (9.5 ft) long and 1.8–2.2 m (5.9–7.4 ft) tall, and weighs 300–920 kg (660–2000 lb). It is typically smaller than the related American bison (Bison bison), and has shorter hair on the neck, head, and forequarters, but longer tail and horns. Wisent are now forest-dwelling. They have few predators (besides humans) with only scattered reports from the 1800s of wolf and bear predation. Wisent were first scientifically described by Carolus Linnaeus in 1758. Some later descriptions treat the wisent as conspecific with the American bison. It is not to be confused with the aurochs, the extinct ancestor of domestic cattle.]<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhstDW-_IRi0Z5-Qx6E1J-j-eoVBEH35j5NXoZfwVEF2ZD7OprQ7ntQ3wefiHCovhK6mn-L0VsiPbvJNc1Id5uWF0uKHikSW02pnrhxEnG_IDZgc4JU4_2QOE4TmgKs6bxLVgyAg5Q70XU/s1600/000001b03-000015CaliforniaCornucopia.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhstDW-_IRi0Z5-Qx6E1J-j-eoVBEH35j5NXoZfwVEF2ZD7OprQ7ntQ3wefiHCovhK6mn-L0VsiPbvJNc1Id5uWF0uKHikSW02pnrhxEnG_IDZgc4JU4_2QOE4TmgKs6bxLVgyAg5Q70XU/s320/000001b03-000015CaliforniaCornucopia.jpg" width="248" /></a></div>
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[California poster from, of course, way later]<br />
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...or possibly a cornucopia...<br />
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[The cornucopia (Latin: Cornu Copiae) is a symbol of food and abundance dating back at least to the 5th Century BC, also referred to as Horn of Plenty, Horn of Amalthea, and harvest cone.<br />
In Greek mythology, Amalthea raised Zeus on the milk of a goat. In return Jupiter gave Amalthea the goat's horn. It had the power to give to the person in possession of it whatever he or she wished for. This gave rise to the legend of the cornucopia. The original depictions were of the goat's horn filled with fruits and flowers: deities, especially Fortuna, would be depicted with the horn of plenty. The cornucopia was also a symbol for a woman's fertility. In modern depiction, the cornucopia is typically a hollow, horn-shaped wicker basket typically filled with various kinds of festive fruit and vegetables. In North America, the cornucopia has come to be associated with Thanksgiving and the harvest.]<br />
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...in one hand, which has 13 notches. According to some researchers, this may symbolise the number of moons or the number of menstrual cycles in one year. She has her hand on her abdomen (or womb), with large breasts and vulva. There is a "Y" on her thigh and her faceless head is turned toward the horn.<br />
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At least one writer (flutist and author James Galway) maintains that the horn decpicted is a musical one. If so, the woman is holding it in the manner of a medieval gemshorn (i.e. bell towards mouth).<br />
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The figure was rediscovered in 1911 by J. G. Lalanne, a physician. It was carved into the wall of a limestone rock shelter (abri de Laussel) on the territory of the commune of Marquay, in the Dordogne department of southwestern France. It is now in the Musée d'Aquitaine, in Bordeaux, France.<br />
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***<br />
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An aerophone is any musical instrument which produces sound primarily by causing a body of air to vibrate, without the use of strings or membranes, and without the vibration of the instrument itself adding considerably to the sound. It is one of the five main classes (class 4, although with respect to traditional western classifications of instruments, corresponding to the "woodwinds and brass" of symphony orchestras, which tend to be located toward the top of pages in full scores) of instruments in the original Hornbostel-Sachs scheme of musical instrument classification.<br />
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Hornbostel-Sachs divides aerophones by whether vibrating air is contained in the instrument itself or not.<br />
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<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEJim-_gnKZfNvUF-5Lmxy7i9czfer_aUhpI2pPPcR3wOXmZsExEItnsNgKPhrunZvnRaKhwxWYVyAVJDdMoxn8f1GmnRZsK4v54lJXPZmoIQyHn7sTuA6nMV1BMi7bGEcrfvm_RD98b5l/s1600-h/0000bullroarer.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212395685458893010" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEJim-_gnKZfNvUF-5Lmxy7i9czfer_aUhpI2pPPcR3wOXmZsExEItnsNgKPhrunZvnRaKhwxWYVyAVJDdMoxn8f1GmnRZsK4v54lJXPZmoIQyHn7sTuA6nMV1BMi7bGEcrfvm_RD98b5l/s400/0000bullroarer.jpg" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center;" /></a><br />
The first class (41) includes instruments where the vibrating air is not contained by the instrument itself, such as the bullroarer. Such instruments are called free aerophones. This class includes free reed instruments, such as the harmonica, but also many instruments unlikely to be called wind instruments at all by most people, such as sirens and whips.<br />
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The second class (42) includes instruments where the vibrating air is contained by the instrument. This class includes almost all the instruments generally called wind instruments in the west, such as the flute, sheng, oboe, and trombone.<br />
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Additionally, very loud sounds can be made by explosions directed into, or being detonated inside of resonant cavities. Instruments such as the calliope (and steam whistle), as well as the pyrophone (fire/explosion organ[!]) might thus be considered as class 42 instruments, despite the fact that the "wind" or "air" may be steam or an air-fuel mixture.<br />
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[1988 Senegal / 1987 France / 1985 Tanzania]Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-27137679018873774271985-01-01T01:00:00.000-08:002013-08-24T13:51:18.921-07:00Tanzania (2,500,000 BC) - Olduvai - Voice<br />
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Olduvai Gorge or Oldupai Gorge is commonly referred to as "The Cradle of Mankind," or shall we say "Humankind."<br />
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It is a steep-sided ravine in the Great Rift Valley,<br />
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which stretches along eastern Africa.<br />
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[Tanzania - Zaramo - <span style="font-style: italic;">Mitamba Yalagala Kumchuzi</span> (before 1984)]<br />
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Olduvai is in the eastern Serengeti Plains in northern Tanzania and is about 30 miles long. The gorge is named after the Maasai word for the wild sisal plant Sansevieria ehrenbergii, commonly called Oldupaai.<br />
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[Most likely not a scene from Olduvai Gorge]<br />
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It is one of the most important prehistoric sites in the world and has been instrumental in furthering understanding of early human evolution. Excavation work there was pioneered by Louis and Mary Leakey in the 1950s and continued into the 21st Century by Professor Fidelis Masao of the Open University of Tanzania supported by Earthwatch; there have also been teams from Rutgers University. Millions of years ago, the site was that of a large lake, the shores of which were covered with successive deposits of volcanic ash. Around 500,000 years ago seismic activity diverted a nearby stream which began to cut down into the sediments, revealing seven main layers in the walls of the gorge.<br />
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The stratigraphy is extremely deep and layers of volcanic ash and stones allow radiometric dating of the embedded artifacts, mostly through potassium-argon dating. The first artifacts in Olduvai (pebble tools and choppers) date to circa 2 million years ago but fossil remains of human ancestors have been found from as long as 2.5 million years ago.<br />
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The earliest archaeological deposit, known as Bed I, has produced evidence of campsites and living floors along with stone tools made of flakes from local basalt and quartz. Since this is the site where these kinds of tools were first discovered, these tools are called Oldowan. It is now thought that the Oldowan toolmaking tradition started about 2.6 million years ago. Bones from this layer are not of modern humans but primitive hominid forms of Paranthropus boisei and the first discovered specimens of Homo habilis.<br />
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The Olduvai Gorge bears the distinction of having the oldest known evidence of Elephant consumption, attributed to Homo ergaster around 1.8 million years ago.<br />
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Above this, in Bed II, pebble tools begin to be replaced by more sophisticated handaxes of the Acheulean industry and made by Homo ergaster. This layer dates to around 1.5 million years ago.<br />
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Beds III and IV have produced Acheulean tools and fossil bones from more than 600,000 years ago.<br />
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During a period of major faulting and volcanism roughly 400,000 to 600,000 years ago, the Masek Beds were made.<br />
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Beds above these contained tools from a Kenya-Capsian industry made by modern humans and are termed the Masek Beds (600,000 to 400,000 years ago), the Ndutu Beds (400,000 to 32,000 years ago), and the Naisiusiu Beds (22,000 to 15,000 years ago).<br />
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[Human Vocal Cords]<br />
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The human voice consists of sound made by a human being using the vocal folds for talking, singing, laughing, crying, screaming, etc. Human voice is specifically that part of human sound production in which the vocal folds (vocal cords) are the primary noise source. Generally speaking, the voice can be subdivided into three parts; the lungs, the vocal folds, and the articulators. The lung (the pump) must produce adequate airflow to vibrate vocal folds (air is the fuel of the voice). The vocal folds (vocal cords) are the vibrators, neuromuscular units that ‘fine tune’ pitch and tone. The articulators (vocal tract consisting of tongue, palate, cheek, lips, etc.) articulate and filter the sound.<br />
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The vocal folds, in combination with the articulators, are capable of producing highly intricate arrays of sound.<br />
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The tone of voice may be modulated to suggest emotions such as anger, surprise, or happiness.<br />
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Singers use the human voice as an instrument for creating music.<br />
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Men and women have different vocal folds sizes; adult male voices are usually lower-pitched and have larger folds. The male vocal folds (which would be measured vertically in the opposite diagram), are between 17 mm and 25 mm in length.<br />
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Matching the female body, which on the whole has less muscle than the male, females have smaller folds. The female vocal folds are between 12.5 mm and 17.5 mm in length.<br />
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As seen in the illustration, the folds are located just above the trachea (the windpipe which travels from the lungs). Food and drink do not pass through the cords but instead pass through the esophagus, an unlinked tube. Both tubes are separated by the epiglottis, a "flap" that covers the opening of the trachea while swallowing. When food goes down through the cords and trachea (can occur when a person inhales while swallowing), aspiration and possibly choking result.<br />
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The folds in both sexes are within the larynx. They are attached at the back (side nearest the spinal cord) to the arytenoid cartilages, and at the front (side under the chin) to the thyroid cartilage. They have no outer edge as they blend into the side of the breathing tube (the illustration is out of date and does not show this well) while their inner edges or "margins" are free to vibrate (the hole). They have a three layer construction of an epithelium, vocal ligament, then muscle (vocalis muscle), which can shorten and bulge the folds. They are flat triangular bands and are pearly white in color. Above both sides of the vocal cord is the vestibular fold or false vocal cord, which has a small sac between its two folds (not illustrated).<br />
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The difference in vocal folds size between men and women means that they have differently pitched voices. Additionally, genetics also causes variances amongst the same sex, with men and women's singing voices being categorized into types. For example, among men, there are basses, baritones and tenors, and contraltos, mezzo-sopranos and sopranos among women. There are additional categories for operatic voices. This is not the only source of difference between male and female voice. Men, generally speaking, have a larger vocal tract, which essentially gives the resultant voice a lower tonal quality. This is mostly independent of the vocal folds themselves.<br />
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The sound of each individual's voice is entirely unique not only because of the actual shape and size of an individual's vocal cords but also due to the size and shape of the rest of that person's body. Humans have vocal folds which can loosen, tighten, or change their thickness, and over which breath can be transferred at varying pressures. The shape of chest and neck, the position of the tongue, and the tightness of otherwise unrelated muscles can be altered. Any one of these actions results in a change in pitch, volume, timbre, or tone of the sound produced. Sound also resonates within different parts of the body, and an individual's size and bone structure can affect the sound produced by an individual.<br />
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Singers can also learn to project sound in certain ways so that it resonates better within their vocal tract. This is known as vocal resonation. Another major influence on vocal sound and production is the function of the larynx which people can manipulate in different ways to produce different sounds. These different kinds of laryngeal function are described as different kinds of vocal registers.<br />
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The primary method for singers to accomplish this is through the use of the Singer's Formant; which has been shown to match particularly well to the most sensitive part of the ear's frequency range.<br />
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Vocal registration refers to the system of vocal registers within the human voice. A register in the human voice is a particular series of tones, produced in the same vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, and possessing the same quality. Registers originate in laryngeal function. They occur because the vocal folds are capable of producing several different vibratory patterns. Each of these vibratory patterns appears within a particular range of pitches and produces certain characteristic sounds.<br />
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The term register can be somewhat confusing at it encompasses several aspects of the human voice. The term register can be used to refer to any of the following:<br />
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A particular part of the vocal range such as the upper, middle, or lower registers.<br />
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A resonance area such as chest voice or head voice.<br />
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A phonatory process.<br />
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A certain vocal timbre.<br />
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A region of the voice which is defined or delimited by vocal breaks.<br />
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A subset of a language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social setting.<br />
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In linguistics, a register language is a language which combines tone and vowel phonation into a single phonological system.<br />
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Within speech pathology the term vocal register has three constituent elements: a certain vibratory pattern of the vocal folds, a certain series of pitches, and a certain type of sound.<br />
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Speech pathologists identify four vocal registers based on the physiology of laryngeal function:<br />
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the vocal fry register, the modal register, the falsetto register, and the whistle register. This view is also adopted by many vocal pedagogists.<br />
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Vocal resonation is the process by which the basic product of phonation is enhanced in timbre and/or intensity by the air-filled cavities through which it passes on its way to the outside air.<br />
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Various terms related to the resonation process include amplification, enrichment, enlargement, improvement, intensification, and prolongation, although in strictly scientific usage acoustic authorities would question most of them. The main point to be drawn from these terms by a singer or speaker is that the end result of resonation is, or should be, to make a better sound.<br />
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There are seven areas that may be listed as possible vocal resonators. In sequence from the lowest within the body to the highest, these areas are the chest, the tracheal tree, the larynx itself, the pharynx, the oral cavity, the nasal cavity, and the sinuses.<br />
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The 12-tone musical scale, upon which the majority of the world's music is based, may have its roots in the sound of the human voice during the course of evolution, according to a study published by the New Scientist. Analysis of recorded speech samples found peaks in acoustic energy that mirrored the distances between notes in the twelve-tone scale.<br />
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[1987 France / 1985 Tanzania / 1981 Earth]Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-91100953257019034101981-01-01T01:00:00.000-08:002014-04-23T16:03:17.053-07:00Earth (c. 4,540,000,000 BC) - Sound - Music<br />
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Earth is the third planet from the Sun and is the largest of the terrestrial planets in the Solar System in diameter, mass and density. It is also referred to as the Earth, Planet Earth, the World, and Terra.<br />
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Home to millions of species, including humans, Earth is the only place in the universe where life is known to exist. Scientific evidence indicates that the planet formed 4.54 billion years ago, and life appeared on its surface within a billion years. Since then, Earth's biosphere has significantly altered the atmosphere and other abiotic conditions on the planet, enabling the proliferation of aerobic organisms as well as the formation of the ozone layer which, together with Earth's magnetic field, blocks harmful radiation, permitting life on land.<br />
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Earth's outer surface is divided into several rigid segments, or tectonic plates, that gradually migrate across the surface over periods of many millions of years. About 71% of the surface is covered with salt-water oceans, the remainder consisting of continents and islands; liquid water, necessary for all known life, is not known to exist on any other planet's surface. Earth's interior remains active, with a thick layer of relatively solid mantle, a liquid outer core that generates a magnetic field, and a solid iron inner core.<br />
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Earth interacts with other objects in outer space, including the Sun and the Moon. At present, Earth orbits the Sun once for every roughly 366.26 times it rotates about its axis. This length of time is a sidereal year, which is equal to 365.26 solar days.<br />
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The Earth's axis of rotation is tilted 23.4° away from the perpendicular to its orbital plane, producing seasonal variations on the planet's surface with a period of one tropical year (365.24 solar days). Earth's only known natural satellite, the Moon, which began orbiting it about 4.53 billion years ago, provides ocean tides, stabilizes the axial tilt and gradually slows the planet's rotation. A cometary bombardment during the early history of the planet played a role in the formation of the oceans.<br />
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Later, asteroid impacts caused significant changes to the surface environment.<br />
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Sound is vibration transmitted through a gas (usually air), liquid, or solid;<br />
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particularly, those vibrations composed of frequencies capable of being detected by ears.<br />
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For humans, hearing is limited to frequencies between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz (20 kHz), with the upper limit generally decreasing with age. Other species have a different range of hearing. For example, dogs can perceive vibrations higher than 20 kHz. As a signal perceived by one of the major senses, sound is used by many species for detecting danger, navigation, predation, and communication.<br />
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Any physical phenomena on earth -- such as<br />
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fire,<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3J51nRBJJ1fcniITuC_DZdroBi3ewyQMAlH6fce3vHP1qGfBLQq5D70Ula1pxomf5KpAEN8x_rhT-59M4M1KSaPUWuhzfaqNEpobba7RZPpqBzmvMOnxsc_L_tsU1Q_4VXS18OQ0l6sE/s1600/000000a14Volcano.jpeg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi3J51nRBJJ1fcniITuC_DZdroBi3ewyQMAlH6fce3vHP1qGfBLQq5D70Ula1pxomf5KpAEN8x_rhT-59M4M1KSaPUWuhzfaqNEpobba7RZPpqBzmvMOnxsc_L_tsU1Q_4VXS18OQ0l6sE/s1600/000000a14Volcano.jpeg" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
volcanism,<br />
<script language="JavaScript" src="http://www.21st-centurymusic.com/music/audio-player.js"></script><br />
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<br />
[Alan Hovhaness (1911-2000)<br />
<span style="font-style: italic;">Symphony No. 50</span> ("Mount St. Helens"), Op. 360: III (1982)<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhg4aq82eSb5eUmPCzcsuaOQXdvLxkWql41LWR4EKSoYD92wmHrfKwDY5hW4NAKBJJyu3s6bYDKLor4oTALCDF5IW-PyGhcq8Urr8dJL2FtwdIjEVqTGPiPW7Zi_umyTH21MB3Y6ZJC2I/s1600/000000a15ThunderstormNight.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhg4aq82eSb5eUmPCzcsuaOQXdvLxkWql41LWR4EKSoYD92wmHrfKwDY5hW4NAKBJJyu3s6bYDKLor4oTALCDF5IW-PyGhcq8Urr8dJL2FtwdIjEVqTGPiPW7Zi_umyTH21MB3Y6ZJC2I/s320/000000a15ThunderstormNight.jpg" height="202" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
storm,<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgA8v66OH5l0Zrf-c8Zf6vei3IFDHOCKftfoCFwQqaZPPLIIceJwo5d80PMxpI7Wqbz861u5albrB4KkdFPIRTOnz_ugskppO55KNEJY8VFxp3H3IsnDHnInOL6kKdNsJb8trPAjvkW_8Y/s1600/000000a16WindventoOrientaleTaccuinoSanitatis,Casanatense4182.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgA8v66OH5l0Zrf-c8Zf6vei3IFDHOCKftfoCFwQqaZPPLIIceJwo5d80PMxpI7Wqbz861u5albrB4KkdFPIRTOnz_ugskppO55KNEJY8VFxp3H3IsnDHnInOL6kKdNsJb8trPAjvkW_8Y/s320/000000a16WindventoOrientaleTaccuinoSanitatis,Casanatense4182.jpg" height="320" width="298" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
wind,<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpZhk9-MzgnZDfKfLkzzYG-QnZSF47mJ-Sy-HZtD-xq0r7Sg5Z87EC39N2ZUxfInBD7eLOFTfE7hpmjnDaO9PbWHAhwnUDkF6Xd87Svi8-45KY7EuajNfmNnV6PUHsaXJPGPNCvlfUntY/s1600/000000a16WavesCornwall.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjpZhk9-MzgnZDfKfLkzzYG-QnZSF47mJ-Sy-HZtD-xq0r7Sg5Z87EC39N2ZUxfInBD7eLOFTfE7hpmjnDaO9PbWHAhwnUDkF6Xd87Svi8-45KY7EuajNfmNnV6PUHsaXJPGPNCvlfUntY/s320/000000a16WavesCornwall.jpg" height="320" width="240" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
and surf -- produce (and are characterized by) unique sounds.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNJKlHBZGPPDED3QQfTsnvlvrpO5UFe6fptMu0dlo76Zj5dsy7x4YCp998pvE-CMGLOicgWvxEGnlcX5TajpLXNEfMZCl74DJljQRU6EYgoO_6dtb5dmXZJ4wdOmknYfNjlretrE-B97U/s1600/000000a17BeesOsmiaLignaria.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgNJKlHBZGPPDED3QQfTsnvlvrpO5UFe6fptMu0dlo76Zj5dsy7x4YCp998pvE-CMGLOicgWvxEGnlcX5TajpLXNEfMZCl74DJljQRU6EYgoO_6dtb5dmXZJ4wdOmknYfNjlretrE-B97U/s1600/000000a17BeesOsmiaLignaria.jpg" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
Many animals (such as bees,<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirm-eF7_Nvy0D-YM6o28SlfXIZ3wDDOJ1Eo-FSKcfZzWVuJr_ujjk6RzwFJTOGDQW6VdNtPD1hCna3E3q33L0idN9gKyVnSN-xrY9FYBL_5y_clfeChhBLd9FS-GojkhQFzpY8c_TeQFs/s1600/000000a18FrogWhitesTree.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirm-eF7_Nvy0D-YM6o28SlfXIZ3wDDOJ1Eo-FSKcfZzWVuJr_ujjk6RzwFJTOGDQW6VdNtPD1hCna3E3q33L0idN9gKyVnSN-xrY9FYBL_5y_clfeChhBLd9FS-GojkhQFzpY8c_TeQFs/s320/000000a18FrogWhitesTree.jpg" height="210" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
frogs,<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUSFZbm6TDpmLMoW_r7uvWjWFv2nRy32qJsh__UakuKPhPocM4CqBjImLeFqHupeROC6RmEuI4wmdVy-2uSLfEUFUI0bN0s6PkC21LFcv-2yzFfrvvSjvo4-_-vd01nQOIyM3Y4qEcLAI/s1600/000000a19BrontosaurusStamp.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUSFZbm6TDpmLMoW_r7uvWjWFv2nRy32qJsh__UakuKPhPocM4CqBjImLeFqHupeROC6RmEuI4wmdVy-2uSLfEUFUI0bN0s6PkC21LFcv-2yzFfrvvSjvo4-_-vd01nQOIyM3Y4qEcLAI/s320/000000a19BrontosaurusStamp.jpg" height="254" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
dinosaurs [probably -- sure, why not?],<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuSw51oDaa8Lx0zPStDPKwXzzE1suBJe0VWrE-5Y4aE5Bgakc48DFjt0WdSvDTfkYA1cHx4_CwHCrZ3djgIscsM99ABXvi_brxHh7iDu0x2wozfP-q-bFspOXJSCgwns0tq6BIs4qhEfw/s1600/000000a21BirdLiquidGhoul.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhuSw51oDaa8Lx0zPStDPKwXzzE1suBJe0VWrE-5Y4aE5Bgakc48DFjt0WdSvDTfkYA1cHx4_CwHCrZ3djgIscsM99ABXvi_brxHh7iDu0x2wozfP-q-bFspOXJSCgwns0tq6BIs4qhEfw/s1600/000000a21BirdLiquidGhoul.jpg" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
birds,<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9mbZT0Sf-Z2KxohIf9rG4kw-_GTfYMxm3dGWqTCam4o_8WxZEnN_6SV1ouZbFa59S1dt8UBkhtL3_u8rUaAhDEZP10j1iNPtnI60s9YDXsfJ_f6mKmgFGZQSLJE0eJfbgo7Rqm1_gB8w/s1600/000000a22WhaleHumpbackUnderwaterShot.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi9mbZT0Sf-Z2KxohIf9rG4kw-_GTfYMxm3dGWqTCam4o_8WxZEnN_6SV1ouZbFa59S1dt8UBkhtL3_u8rUaAhDEZP10j1iNPtnI60s9YDXsfJ_f6mKmgFGZQSLJE0eJfbgo7Rqm1_gB8w/s320/000000a22WhaleHumpbackUnderwaterShot.jpg" height="179" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
whales,<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhz-7KnBR7K9TDzx5e-AjGeUmLJN9B_K-tsSn6I-vsz3qjuGsnFdnyEyYp-WHsOFx9-qeMFVutV4qp7X08QthgfHVMxQ0iDIipov83iivBgthPfOP7AbO64diDl-HjctaUJWZnUSASWJ-U/s1600/000000a23MonkeyBatu.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhz-7KnBR7K9TDzx5e-AjGeUmLJN9B_K-tsSn6I-vsz3qjuGsnFdnyEyYp-WHsOFx9-qeMFVutV4qp7X08QthgfHVMxQ0iDIipov83iivBgthPfOP7AbO64diDl-HjctaUJWZnUSASWJ-U/s1600/000000a23MonkeyBatu.jpg" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
and primates -- have also developed special organs to produce sound.<br />
<br />
In some species, these have evolved to produce song and (in humans) speech. Furthermore, humans have developed culture and technology (such as music, telephony, and radio) that allows them to generate, record, transmit, and broadcast sound.<br />
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggGxbAtpGmrarRuuY6zc_drA8VHXGz8-LYTrBOe_EB5m6eqZgaptwkVWE7M0BZc9lMKIsr7TgKUDpomxxg8NESZsSkFFukER5EDQa1uY3EnMA5j0oC6VdoOSWznOCMPZpS_wlFejKpum0/s1600-h/1929GoldsmithAlien_movie_poster.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEggGxbAtpGmrarRuuY6zc_drA8VHXGz8-LYTrBOe_EB5m6eqZgaptwkVWE7M0BZc9lMKIsr7TgKUDpomxxg8NESZsSkFFukER5EDQa1uY3EnMA5j0oC6VdoOSWznOCMPZpS_wlFejKpum0/s400/1929GoldsmithAlien_movie_poster.jpg" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5236387875737975842" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center;" /></a><br />
[<span style="font-style: italic;">Alien</span> - "In space, no one can here you scream" -- i.e. no medium of transmission!]<br />
<br />
The mechanical vibrations that can be interpreted as sound can travel through all forms of matter: gases, liquids, solids, and plasmas. However, sound cannot propagate through vacuum. The matter that supports the sound is called the medium.<br />
<br />
Sound is transmitted through gases, plasma, and liquids as longitudinal waves, also called compression waves. Through solids, however, it can be transmitted as both longitudinal and transverse waves. Longitudinal sound waves are waves of alternating pressure deviations from the equilibrium pressure, causing local regions of compression and rarefaction, while transverse waves in solids, are waves of alternating shear stress.<br />
<br />
Matter in the medium is periodically displaced by a sound wave, and thus oscillates. The energy carried by the sound wave converts back and forth between the potential energy of the extra compression (in case of longitudinal waves) or lateral displacement strain (in case of transverse waves) of the matter and the kinetic energy of the oscillations of the medium.<br />
<br />
Sound waves are characterized by the generic properties of waves, which are frequency, wavelength, period, amplitude, intensity, speed, and direction (sometimes speed and direction are combined as a velocity vector, or wavelength and direction are combined as a wave vector).<br />
<br />
Transverse waves, also known as shear waves, have an additional property of polarization.<br />
<br />
Sound characteristics can depend on the type of sound waves (longitudinal versus transverse) as well as on the physical properties of the transmission medium.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjt5Nujr8v3HdGoUXiAWgR7PNEvFoVkk1EJKN5KFUzpC_OxIjTKBYOeilVIdZWHoj9CDyLKt5_lDplRJF5fZZG5pfNVvlhd4uWD1ExfiKcanqfUWoG2AgT_0lpvbNK6JGyYuRQQQ3T6xno/s1600/000000a24SineWavesDifferentFrequencies.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjt5Nujr8v3HdGoUXiAWgR7PNEvFoVkk1EJKN5KFUzpC_OxIjTKBYOeilVIdZWHoj9CDyLKt5_lDplRJF5fZZG5pfNVvlhd4uWD1ExfiKcanqfUWoG2AgT_0lpvbNK6JGyYuRQQQ3T6xno/s320/000000a24SineWavesDifferentFrequencies.jpg" height="106" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
[Sine waves having the same amplitude, but different frequencies]<br />
<br />
Whenever the pitch of the soundwave is affected by some kind of change, the distance between the sound wave maxima also changes, resulting in a change of f<span style="font-style: italic;">requency</span>.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSKAoHNsiI3byG1enC42I9RUw7cT7x7KAAbu_U0O9lF4az2MSZUSOfQmZDLXl2mloonSenfijRn70b60Kp63e86fAjxu4Wtwyfpi7rsKBWMF8VBCNUbwjd_S4PRxKDUmwPqhl0AhhuX3E/s1600/000000a25SineWaveAmplitude.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjSKAoHNsiI3byG1enC42I9RUw7cT7x7KAAbu_U0O9lF4az2MSZUSOfQmZDLXl2mloonSenfijRn70b60Kp63e86fAjxu4Wtwyfpi7rsKBWMF8VBCNUbwjd_S4PRxKDUmwPqhl0AhhuX3E/s1600/000000a25SineWaveAmplitude.jpg" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
[Sine wave with a larger amplitude than any in the previous visual]<br />
<br />
When the loudness of a soundwave changes, so does the amount of compression in airwave that is travelling through it, which in turn can be defined as <span style="font-style: italic;">amplitude</span>.<br />
<br />
The speed of sound depends on the medium through which the waves are passing, and is often quoted as a fundamental property of the material. In general, the speed of sound is proportional to the square root of the ratio of the elastic modulus (stiffness) of the medium to its density. Those physical properties and the speed of sound change with ambient conditions. For example, the speed of sound in gases depends on temperature. In air at sea level, the speed of sound is approximately 767.3 mph, in fresh water 3,315.1 mph (both at 20 °C, or 68 °F), and in steel about 13,332.1 mph.[2] The speed of sound is also slightly sensitive (a second-order effect) to the sound amplitude, which means that there are nonlinear propagation effects, such as the production of harmonics and mixed tones not present in the original sound (see parametric array).<br />
<br />
The scientific study of the propagation, absorption, and reflection of sound waves is called acoustics. Noise is a term often used to refer to an unwanted sound. In science and engineering, noise is an undesirable component that obscures a wanted signal.<br />
<br />
Sound pressure is defined as the difference between the average local pressure of the medium outside of the sound wave in which it is traveling through (at a given point and a given time) and the pressure found within the sound wave itself within that same medium. A square of this difference (i.e. a square of the deviation from the equilibrium pressure) is usually averaged over time and/or space, and a square root of such average is taken to obtain a root mean square (RMS) value. For example, 1 Pa RMS sound pressure in atmospheric air implies that the actual pressure in the sound wave oscillates between (1 atm Pa) and (1 atm Pa), that is between 101323.6 and 101326.4 Pa. Such a tiny (relative to atmospheric) variation in air pressure at an audio frequency will be perceived as quite a deafening sound, and can cause hearing damage, according to the table below.<br />
<br />
As the human ear can detect sounds with a very wide range of amplitudes, sound pressure is often measured as a level on a logarithmic decibel scale.<br />
<br />
Since the human ear does not have a flat spectral response, sound pressures are often frequency weighted so that the measured level will match perceived levels more closely. The International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) has defined several weighting schemes. A-weighting attempts to match the response of the human ear to noise and A-weighted sound pressure levels are labeled dBA. C-weighting is used to measure peak levels.<br />
<br />
Equipment for generating or using sound includes musical instruments, hearing aids, sonar systems and sound reproduction and broadcasting equipment. Many of these use electro-acoustic transducers such as microphones and loudspeakers.<br />
<br />
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhH8McqZxfTONyRQuBz68YV2ZkKzrktTQ-FkLVG1W_fXOSWqEVujr77EtQWc3PdtUHJ42VGZL8oiPCoexSr9hDqVinGH9ozBfBNnEqanNNWNmAt_nZonXfiSutKu8tF1VCF1P7Q68mbIvQ/s1600/000000a26SEnvelope.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhH8McqZxfTONyRQuBz68YV2ZkKzrktTQ-FkLVG1W_fXOSWqEVujr77EtQWc3PdtUHJ42VGZL8oiPCoexSr9hDqVinGH9ozBfBNnEqanNNWNmAt_nZonXfiSutKu8tF1VCF1P7Q68mbIvQ/s1600/000000a26SEnvelope.jpg" /></a></div>
<br />
<br />
Attack - How quickly a sound reaches full volume after it begins.<br />
<br />
Decay - How quickly the sound drops after the initial peak.<br />
<br />
Sustain - The steadiness of the sound after its attack.<br />
<br />
Release - How quickly the sound fades when a note ends.<br />
<br />
***<br />
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3CDomxwc5AxJepjBYWaoaMUN7PJi8FPci-a3HAPykIjf0cR90hSgkT70x8lHOcc4OYfZDfaaTS1lyqv95NXlYFN81ZHyuf_Kr3GsujVz2Vs-tkLzdt5E1K1wy2hld8VlYi6mHIJGOwJxw/s1600-h/000009GreeceMuse_lyre_Louvre.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh3CDomxwc5AxJepjBYWaoaMUN7PJi8FPci-a3HAPykIjf0cR90hSgkT70x8lHOcc4OYfZDfaaTS1lyqv95NXlYFN81ZHyuf_Kr3GsujVz2Vs-tkLzdt5E1K1wy2hld8VlYi6mHIJGOwJxw/s400/000009GreeceMuse_lyre_Louvre.jpg" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213095054046998050" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center;" /></a><br />
Music is an art form in which the medium is sound. Common elements of music are rhythm (and its associated concepts tempo, meter, and articulation), pitch (which governs melody and harmony), dynamics, and the sonic qualities of timbre and texture. The word derives from Greek (mousike), "(art) of the Muses."<br />
<br />
***<br />
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4AtfI4oH6h1xjpSmCBUqLYMdzgpdv84K8UHKvmDPLzMDKdZg0gpp8yrOUettLgLyOBlDvDzIkUf3kDhuof_MVwK_-jgpy8L9CThMNnc85VNu51HHePPcpk5VJXrFkQcZcEnruNKhlDvIc/s1600-h/000009GreeceMusesSatyr.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4AtfI4oH6h1xjpSmCBUqLYMdzgpdv84K8UHKvmDPLzMDKdZg0gpp8yrOUettLgLyOBlDvDzIkUf3kDhuof_MVwK_-jgpy8L9CThMNnc85VNu51HHePPcpk5VJXrFkQcZcEnruNKhlDvIc/s400/000009GreeceMusesSatyr.jpg" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213096281467205202" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center;" /></a><br />
In Greek mythology, the Muses (Ancient Greek hai moũsai: perhaps from the Proto-Indo-European root *men- "think") are a sisterhood of goddesses or spirits, their number set at nine by Classical times, who embody the arts and inspire the creation process with their graces through remembered and improvised song and stage, writing, traditional music, and dance. They were water nymphs, associated with the springs of Helicon and with Pieris, from which they are sometimes called the Pierides. The Olympian system set Apollo as their leader, Apollon Mousagetēs. Not only are the Muses explicitly used in modern English to refer to an inspiration, as when one cites his/her own artistic muse, but they are also implicit in the words "amuse" or "musing upon."<br />
<br />
According to Hesiod's <span style="font-style: italic;">Theogony</span> (seventh century BC), they are the daughters of Zeus, king of the gods, and Mnemosyne, goddess of memory. For Alcman and Mimnermus, they were even more primordial, springing from Uranus and Gaia. Pausanias records a tradition of two generations of Muses; the first being daughters of Uranus and Gaia, the second of Zeus and Mnemosyne. Another, rarer genealogy is that they are daughters of Harmonia (the daughter of Aphrodite and Ares) which contradicts the myth in which they were dancing at the wedding of Harmonia and Cadmus.<br />
<br />
***<br />
<br />
<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh11YU6hCFYyIVZ7OcqQ9zXBu0UvoOP5w3C1vSygcmtQxjsDS8TlzHZKIg1znqy-cZN_s3URCbbXewlFUkIGUEVd6Mvx_P1VqbcKyTXD6LZxgHq7d742dSAjcDD2EPRJR-lvV-hnp84d7sB/s1600-h/1483RaphaelSchoolofAthens.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh11YU6hCFYyIVZ7OcqQ9zXBu0UvoOP5w3C1vSygcmtQxjsDS8TlzHZKIg1znqy-cZN_s3URCbbXewlFUkIGUEVd6Mvx_P1VqbcKyTXD6LZxgHq7d742dSAjcDD2EPRJR-lvV-hnp84d7sB/s400/1483RaphaelSchoolofAthens.jpg" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213098776035529154" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center;" /></a><br />
[Raphael Sanzio (1483-1520) - <span style="font-style: italic;">The School of Athens</span>]<br />
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Greek philosophers and<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8S58VN7yuoGYoYybL0sD-mPZ3zHsG4Cmhqa2f1B8I16AfOp8izjT75TzyVfiAsup2IGXwmhktDulnBbDZBdTxrmnk482hyphenhyphen-8wEF8V1Pyh0soxPjEN6nkRJ60R5rQmWcNfRRZ_j5iGtZUp/s1600-h/000007Indiaajanta.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8S58VN7yuoGYoYybL0sD-mPZ3zHsG4Cmhqa2f1B8I16AfOp8izjT75TzyVfiAsup2IGXwmhktDulnBbDZBdTxrmnk482hyphenhyphen-8wEF8V1Pyh0soxPjEN6nkRJ60R5rQmWcNfRRZ_j5iGtZUp/s400/000007Indiaajanta.jpg" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213100199329237538" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center;" /></a><br />
Ancient Indians defined music as tones ordered horizontally as melodies, and vertically as harmonies.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg045JFu80QAZAMPyOUIx99hXUtBjHvmP4rV5O_hbYASJb2dFFZmYLChgpYOo0384Hq_5Nw5mi8XLnatMMsZAFhDDwr3KjFIDz-W_8IH2wM2hdttaaC08aYGjtRiOBVAUvgtGymYpguaCyl/s1600-h/1883VareseOlderClose.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg045JFu80QAZAMPyOUIx99hXUtBjHvmP4rV5O_hbYASJb2dFFZmYLChgpYOo0384Hq_5Nw5mi8XLnatMMsZAFhDDwr3KjFIDz-W_8IH2wM2hdttaaC08aYGjtRiOBVAUvgtGymYpguaCyl/s400/1883VareseOlderClose.jpg" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5213090329347995570" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center;" /></a><br />
Edgar Varese defined the term as simply"organized sound."<br />
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<br />
[Edgar Varese - <span style="font-style: italic;">Poeme Electronique</span>]<br />
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John Cage even partially questioned the "organized" notion, in such works as his notorious<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxM8EtqwAAIn6WhvpDvYmieigng2bCdSJdsBCDPH8lDru2wIft7IEi8QjVSjOswdM3VLq8pbjJyRA6ccQbn8hZuV34IJ5zeRqW7c7XvUANJW9FrLy0mrWy3yiwAqLEE5QM8bBcNfGzdFo/s1600/1912Cage433Title.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhxM8EtqwAAIn6WhvpDvYmieigng2bCdSJdsBCDPH8lDru2wIft7IEi8QjVSjOswdM3VLq8pbjJyRA6ccQbn8hZuV34IJ5zeRqW7c7XvUANJW9FrLy0mrWy3yiwAqLEE5QM8bBcNfGzdFo/s400/1912Cage433Title.jpg" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5505036265756371890" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 400px; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; width: 294px;" /></a><br />
<span style="font-style: italic;">4'33" </span>--<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjA33ubj7uqHQQS2J8EN_YaeqyujWLTCPeiZ8LAC7uANwNqbBPmt49Uj_9cb34MJNKonZkXGHR_4F0ggT8j-eFIvRSQm1OUYR09g11Gz4AoVwa6WtDVCsjeVyH1D0PRrsukWfSXJ4rQk4o/s1600/1912Cage433score.jpg" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjA33ubj7uqHQQS2J8EN_YaeqyujWLTCPeiZ8LAC7uANwNqbBPmt49Uj_9cb34MJNKonZkXGHR_4F0ggT8j-eFIvRSQm1OUYR09g11Gz4AoVwa6WtDVCsjeVyH1D0PRrsukWfSXJ4rQk4o/s400/1912Cage433score.jpg" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5505036461671943138" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 360px; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; width: 181px;" /></a><br />
a work featuring<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgh2G6pp5W2WNx1Hxk3i6mc_7x-NqM6gQo9BzJKPLs1eGpEilYD7QGORib3lxMziCxPqoCIYV-Wp-QPozPgHIRR7EsS0oxkMoIvVC69jsw8-YNmfcDhV1sk5anTwXzMbHL8Ort1XC873BQ/s1600/1912Cage1952-433prog.gif" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgh2G6pp5W2WNx1Hxk3i6mc_7x-NqM6gQo9BzJKPLs1eGpEilYD7QGORib3lxMziCxPqoCIYV-Wp-QPozPgHIRR7EsS0oxkMoIvVC69jsw8-YNmfcDhV1sk5anTwXzMbHL8Ort1XC873BQ/s400/1912Cage1952-433prog.gif" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5505036621335981090" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; height: 400px; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center; width: 306px;" /></a><br />
no intentionally-made sound (yet still, as can be seen from the movements in the printed program, durationally delimited -- although, note the ambiguity of the listing "4 Pieces" -- seemingly a double performance...).<br />
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<br />
According to musicologist Jean-Jacques Nattiez, "the border between music and noise is always culturally defined--which implies that, even within a single society, this border does not always pass through the same place; in short, there is rarely a consensus.... By all accounts there is no single and intercultural universal concept defining what music might be, except that it is "sound through time"<br />
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The creation, performance, significance, and even the definition of music vary according to culture and social context. Music ranges from strictly organized compositions (and their recreation in performance), through improvisational music to aleatoric forms. Music can be divided into genres and sub-genres, although the dividing lines and relationships between music genres are often subtle, sometimes open to individual interpretation, and occasionally controversial. Within "the arts," music can be classified as a performing art, a fine art, or an auditory art form.<br />
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The development of music among humans must have taken place against the backdrop of natural sounds such as birdsong and the sounds other animals use to communicate.<br />
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Prehistoric music is the name which is given to all music produced in preliterate cultures.<br />
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***<br />
<br />
In music, timbre (from Fr. timbre ) is the quality of a musical note or sound that distinguishes different types of sound production, such as voices or musical instruments. The physical characteristics of sound that mediate the perception of timbre include spectrum and envelope.<br />
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Timbre is also known in psychoacoustics as sound quality or sound color.<br />
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For example, timbre is what, with a little practice, people use to distinguish the saxophone from the trumpet, even if both instruments are playing notes at the same pitch and amplitude.<br />
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The Chinese developed a sophisticated understanding of the musical quality of timbre during the Song Dynasty.<br />
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They discovered that the timbre of string instruments could be changed depending on how the strings were touched. Strings could be plucked, brushed, hit, scraped, or rubbed to produce different sounds. The Chinese composed music on the Qin, a long, wooden board with strings. Their Qin songs emphasized the timbre, and the changes in sound could be heard throughout the musical piece.<br />
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Tone color is also often used as a synonym. People who experience synesthesia may see certain colors when they hear particular instruments. Helmholtz used the German Klangfarbe (tone color), and Tyndall proposed an English translation, clangtint.<br />
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The American Standards Association defines timbre as "[...] that attribute of sensation in terms of which a listener can judge that two sounds having the same loudness and pitch are dissimilar." A note to the 1960 definition adds that "timbre depends primarily upon the spectrum of the stimulus, but it also depends upon the waveform, the sound pressure, the frequency location of the spectrum, and the temporal characteristics of the stimulus."<br />
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J.F. Schouten (1968, p.42) describes the "elusive attributes of timbre" as "determined by at least five major acoustic parameters" which Robert Erickson (1975) finds "scaled to the concerns of much contemporary music":<br />
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The range between tonal and noiselike character.<br />
The spectral envelope.<br />
The time envelope in terms of rise, duration, and decay.<br />
The changes both of spectral envelope (formant-glide) and fundamental frequency (micro-intonation).<br />
The prefix, an onset of a sound quite dissimilar to the ensuing lasting vibration.<br />
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The richness of a sound or note produced by a musical instrument is sometimes described in terms of a sum of a number of distinct frequencies. The lowest frequency is called the fundamental frequency and the pitch it produces is used to name the note. For example, in western music, instruments are normally tuned to A = 440 Hz. Other significant frequencies are called overtones of the fundamental frequency, which may include harmonics and partials. Harmonics are whole number multiples of the fundamental frequency — ×2, ×3, ×4, etc.<br />
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Partials are other overtones. Most western instruments produce harmonic sounds, but many instruments produce partials and inharmonic tones, such as cymbals and other non-pitched instruments.<br />
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When the orchestral tuning note is played, the sound is a combination of 440 Hz, 880 Hz, 1320 Hz, 1760 Hz and so on. The balance of the amplitudes of the different frequencies is responsible for the characteristic sound of each instrument.<br />
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The fundamental is not necessarily the strongest component of the overall sound. But it is implied by the existence of the harmonic series -- the A above would be distinguishable from the one an octave below (220 Hz, 440 Hz, 660 Hz, 880 Hz) by the presence of the third harmonic, even if the fundamental were indistinct. Similarly, a pitch is often inferred from non-harmonic spectra, supposedly through a mapping process, an attempt to find the closest harmonic fit.<br />
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The timbre of a sound is also greatly affected by the following aspects of its envelope: attack time and characteristics, decay, sustain, release (ADSR envelope) and transients. Thus these are all common controls on synthesizers. For instance, if one takes away the attack from the sound of a piano or trumpet, it becomes more difficult to identify the sound correctly, since the sound of the hammer hitting the strings or the first blat of the player's lips are highly characteristic of those instruments. The envelope is the overall amplitude structure of a sound, so called because the sound just "fits" inside its envelope: what this means should be clear from a time-domain display of almost any interesting sound, zoomed out enough that the entire waveform is visible.<br />
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[1985 Tanzania / 1981 Earth / 1980 Solar System]Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-32912475937347442881980-01-01T13:00:00.000-08:002013-08-20T16:39:00.665-07:00The Solar System (c. 4,600,000 BC) - Oscillation<br />
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The Solar System initially formed 4.6 billion years ago with the gravitational collapse of a small part of a giant molecular cloud. Most of the collapsing mass collected in the center, forming the Sun, while the rest flattened into a protoplanetary disc out of which the planets, moons, asteroids, and other small Solar System bodies formed.<br />
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This widely accepted model, known as the nebular hypothesis, was first developed in the 18th century by Emanuel Swedenborg, Immanuel Kant, and Pierre-Simon Laplace. Its subsequent development has interwoven a variety of scientific disciplines including astronomy, physics, geology, and planetary science. Since the dawn of the space age in the 1950s and the discovery of extrasolar planets in the 1990s, the models have been both challenged and refined to account for new observations.<br />
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Beginning with the initial formation, the Solar System has evolved considerably. Many moons formed from circling discs of gas and dust around their parent planets, while many other moons are believed to have been captured or (in the case of the Earth's Moon) to have resulted from a giant collision. Collisions between bodies have occurred continuously up to the present day and are central to the evolution of the system. The planets' positions often shifted outward or inward, and planets have switched places. This planetary migration is now believed to be responsible for much of the Solar System's early evolution.<br />
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Just as the Sun and planets were born, they will eventually die. In roughly 5 billion years, the Sun will cool and bloat outward to many times its current diameter (becoming a red giant) before casting off its outer layers as a planetary nebula and leaving behind a stellar corpse known as a white dwarf. The planets will follow the Sun's course; in the far distant future, the gravity of passing stars will gradually whittle away at the Sun's retinue of planets. Some will be destroyed, others will be ejected into interstellar space, but ultimately, over the course of trillions of years, the Sun will be left alone with no other bodies in orbit. The Solar System (or Solar system, solar system[a]) consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by gravity. These objects are the eight planets and their 166 known moons; three dwarf planets (Ceres, Pluto, and Eris) and their four known moons; and billions of small bodies, including asteroids, Kuiper belt objects, comets, meteoroids, and interplanetary dust.<br />
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In broad terms, the charted regions of the Solar System consist of the Sun, four terrestrial inner planets, an asteroid belt composed of small rocky bodies, four gas giant outer planets, and a second belt, the Kuiper belt, composed of icy objects. Beyond the Kuiper belt is the scattered disc, the heliopause, and ultimately the hypothetical Oort cloud.<br />
In order of their distances from the Sun,<br />
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the terrestrial planets are:<br />
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Mercury<br />
Venus<br />
Earth<br />
Mars<br />
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The outer gas giants (or Jovians) are:<br />
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Jupiter<br />
Saturn<br />
Uranus<br />
Neptune<br />
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The three dwarf planets are<br />
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Ceres, the largest object in the asteroid belt;<br />
Pluto, the largest known object in the Kuiper belt;<br />
Eris, the largest known object in the scattered disc.<br />
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Six of the eight planets and two of the dwarf planets are in turn orbited by natural satellites, usually termed "moons" after Earth's Moon, and each of the outer planets is encircled by planetary rings of dust and other particles. All the planets except Earth are named after deities from Greco-Roman mythology.<br />
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A planet is any body in orbit around the Sun that has enough mass to form itself into a spherical shape and has cleared its immediate neighbourhood of all smaller objects. By this definition, the Solar System has eight known planets: Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. From the time of its discovery in 1930 until 2006, Pluto was considered the Solar System's ninth planet. But in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, many objects similar to Pluto were discovered in the outer Solar System, most notably Eris, which is slightly larger than Pluto. On August 24, 2006, the International Astronomical Union defined the term "planet" for the first time, excluding Pluto and reclassifying it under the new category of dwarf planet along with Eris and Ceres.<br />
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A dwarf planet is not required to clear its neighbourhood of other celestial bodies. Other objects that may become classified as dwarf planets are Sedna, Orcus, and Quaoar.<br />
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The remainder of the objects in orbit around the Sun are small Solar System bodies (SSSBs).<br />
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Natural satellites, or moons, are those objects in orbit around planets, dwarf planets and SSSBs, rather than the Sun itself.<br />
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Astronomers usually measure distances within the Solar System in astronomical units (AU). One AU is the approximate distance between the Earth and the Sun, or roughly 149,598,000 km (93,000,000 mi). Pluto is roughly 38 AU from the Sun while Jupiter lies at roughly 5.2 AU. One light-year, the best known unit of interstellar distance, is roughly 63,240 AU. A body's distance from the Sun varies in the course of its year. Its closest approach to the Sun is called its perihelion, while its farthest distance from the Sun is called its aphelion.<br />
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Informally, the Solar System is sometimes divided into separate zones. The inner Solar System includes the four terrestrial planets and the main asteroid belt. Some define the outer Solar System as comprising everything beyond the asteroids.<br />
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Others define it as the region beyond Neptune, with the four gas giants considered a separate "middle zone."<br />
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The principal component of the Solar System is the Sun, a main sequence G2 star that contains 99.86% of the system's known mass and dominates it gravitationally.<br />
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Jupiter and Saturn, the Sun's two largest orbiting bodies, account for more than 90% of the system's remaining mass.<br />
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Most large objects in orbit around the Sun lie near the plane of Earth's orbit, known as the ecliptic. The planets are very close to the ecliptic while comets and Kuiper belt objects are usually at significantly greater angles to it.<br />
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All of the planets and most other objects also orbit with the Sun's rotation (counter-clockwise, as viewed from above the Sun's north pole). There are exceptions, such as Halley's Comet.<br />
Objects travel around the Sun following Kepler's laws of planetary motion. Each object orbits along an approximate ellipse with the Sun at one focus of the ellipse. The closer an object is to the Sun, the faster it moves. The orbits of the planets are nearly circular, but many comets, asteroids and objects of the Kuiper belt follow highly elliptical orbits.<br />
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To cope with the vast distances involved, many representations of the Solar System show orbits the same distance apart. In reality, with a few exceptions, the farther a planet or belt is from the Sun, the larger the distance between it and the previous orbit. For example, Venus is approximately 0.33 AU farther out than Mercury, while Saturn is 4.3 AU out from Jupiter, and Neptune lies 10.5 AU out from Uranus. Attempts have been made to determine a correlation between these orbital distances (see Titius-Bode law), but no such theory has been accepted.<br />
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The Sun is the Solar System's parent star, and far and away its chief component. Its large mass gives it an interior density high enough to sustain nuclear fusion, which releases enormous amounts of energy, mostly radiated into space as electromagnetic radiation such as visible light.<br />
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The Sun is classified as a moderately large yellow dwarf, but this name is misleading as, compared to stars in our galaxy, the Sun is rather large and bright. Stars are classified by the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, a graph which plots the brightness of stars against their surface temperatures. Generally, hotter stars are brighter. Stars following this pattern are said to be on the main sequence; the Sun lies right in the middle of it. However, stars brighter and hotter than the Sun are rare, while stars dimmer and cooler are common.<br />
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It is believed that the Sun's position on the main sequence puts it in the "prime of life" for a star, in that it has not yet exhausted its store of hydrogen for nuclear fusion. The Sun is growing brighter; early in its history it was 75 percent as bright as it is today.<br />
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Calculations of the ratios of hydrogen and helium within the Sun suggest it is halfway through its life cycle. It will eventually move off the main sequence and become larger, brighter, cooler and redder, becoming a red giant in about five billion years.<br />
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At that point its luminosity will be several thousand times its present value.<br />
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The Sun is a population I star; it was born in the later stages of the universe's evolution. It contains more elements heavier than hydrogen and helium ("metals" in astronomical parlance) than older population II stars.[10] Elements heavier than hydrogen and helium were formed in the cores of ancient and exploding stars, so the first generation of stars had to die before the universe could be enriched with these atoms. The oldest stars contain few metals, while stars born later have more. This high metallicity is thought to have been crucial to the Sun's developing a planetary system, because planets form from accretion of metals.<br />
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The inner Solar System is the traditional name for the region comprising the terrestrial planets and asteroids. Composed mainly of silicates and metals, the objects of the inner Solar System huddle very closely to the Sun; the radius of this entire region is shorter than the distance between Jupiter and Saturn.<br />
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The four inner or terrestrial planets have dense, rocky compositions, few or no moons, and no ring systems. They are composed largely of minerals with high melting points, such as the silicates which form their solid crusts and semi-liquid mantles, and metals such as iron and nickel, which form their cores. Three of the four inner planets (Venus, Earth and Mars) have substantial atmospheres; all have impact craters and tectonic surface features such as rift valleys and volcanoes. The term inner planet should not be confused with inferior planet, which designates those planets which are closer to the Sun than Earth is (i.e. Mercury and Venus).<br />
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Mercury (0.4 AU) is the closest planet to the Sun and the smallest planet (0.055 Earth masses). Mercury has no natural satellites, and its only known geological features besides impact craters are "wrinkle-ridges," probably produced by a period of contraction early in its history.<br />
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Mercury's almost negligible atmosphere consists of atoms blasted off its surface by the solar wind.<br />
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Its relatively large iron core and thin mantle have not yet been adequately explained. Hypotheses include that its outer layers were stripped off by a giant impact, and that it was prevented from fully accreting by the young Sun's energy.<br />
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Venus (0.7 AU) is close in size to Earth, (0.815 Earth masses) and like Earth, has a thick silicate mantle around an iron core, a substantial atmosphere and evidence of internal geological activity. However, it is much drier than Earth and its atmosphere is ninety times as dense. Venus has no natural satellites. It is the hottest planet, with surface temperatures over 400 °C, most likely due to the amount of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.[<br />
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No definitive evidence of current geological activity has been detected on Venus, but it has no magnetic field that would prevent depletion of its substantial atmosphere, which suggests that its atmosphere is regularly replenished by volcanic eruptions.<br />
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Earth (1 AU) is the largest and densest of the inner planets, the only one known to have current geological activity, and the only planet known to have life. Its liquid hydrosphere is unique among the terrestrial planets, and it is also the only planet where plate tectonics has been observed. Earth's atmosphere is radically different from those of the other planets, having been altered by the presence of life to contain 21% free oxygen.<br />
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It has one natural satellite, the Moon, the only large satellite of a terrestrial planet in the Solar System.<br />
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<a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQxlNa0jgqaUyd1dj06V6uWFVSUETrwnHZegJH4PyoinE1JCmzqCln8hw_Hr95D9Qc4w8cnTbWSiD4bFWB8AVnclQWEI8r0N3o4ajklU8G_YRECCTjdBGRWYt6Y3jS5bsPd95V9F9djdGV/s1600-h/1874Holst1916Planets1Marssummer_mars.gif" onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}"><img alt="" border="0" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5212340837158364226" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQxlNa0jgqaUyd1dj06V6uWFVSUETrwnHZegJH4PyoinE1JCmzqCln8hw_Hr95D9Qc4w8cnTbWSiD4bFWB8AVnclQWEI8r0N3o4ajklU8G_YRECCTjdBGRWYt6Y3jS5bsPd95V9F9djdGV/s400/1874Holst1916Planets1Marssummer_mars.gif" style="cursor: pointer; display: block; margin: 0px auto 10px; text-align: center;" /></a><br />
[Mars]<br />
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[Gustav Holst (1874-1934) - <span style="font-style: italic;">The Planets</span>, Op. 32: I. Mars (1919)]<br />
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Mars (1.5 AU) is smaller than Earth and Venus (0.107 Earth masses). It possesses a tenuous atmosphere of mostly carbon dioxide. Its surface, peppered with vast volcanoes such as Olympus Mons and rift valleys such as Valles Marineris, shows geological activity that may have persisted until very recently. Its red color comes from rust in its iron-rich soil.<br />
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Mars has two tiny natural satellites (Deimos and Phobos) thought to be captured asteroids.<br />
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Asteroids are mostly small Solar System bodies composed mainly of rocky and metallic non-volatile minerals.<br />
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The main asteroid belt occupies the orbit between Mars and Jupiter, between 2.3 and 3.3 AU from the Sun. It is thought to be remnants from the Solar System's formation that failed to coalesce because of the gravitational interference of Jupiter.<br />
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Asteroids range in size from hundreds of kilometres across to microscopic. All asteroids save the largest, Ceres, are classified as small Solar System bodies, but some asteroids such as Vesta and Hygieia may be reclassed as dwarf planets if they are shown to have achieved hydrostatic equilibrium.<br />
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The asteroid belt contains tens of thousands, possibly millions, of objects over one kilometre in diameter.<br />
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Despite this, the total mass of the main belt is unlikely to be more than a thousandth of that of the Earth.<br />
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The main belt is very sparsely populated; spacecraft routinely pass through without incident. Asteroids with diameters between 10 and 10-4 m are called meteoroids.<br />
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Ceres (2.77 AU) is the largest body in the asteroid belt and is classified as a dwarf planet. It has a diameter of slightly under 1000 km, large enough for its own gravity to pull it into a spherical shape. Ceres was considered a planet when it was discovered in the 19th century, but was reclassified as an asteroid in the 1850s as further observation revealed additional asteroids.<br />
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It was again reclassified in 2006 as a dwarf planet.<br />
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Asteroids in the main belt are divided into asteroid groups and families based on their orbital characteristics. Asteroid moons are asteroids that orbit larger asteroids. They are not as clearly distinguished as planetary moons, sometimes being almost as large as their partners. The asteroid belt also contains main-belt comets which may have been the source of Earth's water.[<br />
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The middle region of the Solar System is home to the gas giants and their planet-sized satellites. Many short period comets, including the centaurs, also lie in this region. It has no traditional name; it is occasionally referred to as the "outer Solar System", although recently that term has been more often applied to the region beyond Neptune. The solid objects in this region are composed of a higher proportion of "ices" (water, ammonia, methane) than the rocky denizens of the inner Solar System.<br />
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The four outer planets, or gas giants (sometimes called Jovian planets), collectively make up 99 percent of the mass known to orbit the Sun. Jupiter and Saturn's atmospheres are largely hydrogen and helium. Uranus and Neptune's atmospheres have a higher percentage of “ices,” such as water, ammonia and methane. Some astronomers suggest they belong in their own category, “ice giants.”[34] All four gas giants have rings, although only Saturn's ring system is easily observed from Earth. The term outer planet should not be confused with superior planet, which designates planets outside Earth's orbit (the outer planets and Mars).<br />
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Jupiter (5.2 AU), at 318 Earth masses, masses 2.5 times all the other planets put together. It is composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Jupiter's strong internal heat creates a number of semi-permanent features in its atmosphere, such as cloud bands and the Great Red Spot. Jupiter has sixty-three known satellites. The four largest, Ganymede, Callisto, Io, and Europa, show similarities to the terrestrial planets, such as volcanism and internal heating.<br />
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Ganymede, the largest satellite in the Solar System, is larger than Mercury.<br />
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Saturn (9.5 AU), famous for its extensive ring system, has similarities to Jupiter, such as its atmospheric composition. Saturn is far less massive, being only 95 Earth masses. Saturn has sixty known satellites (and three unconfirmed); two of which, Titan and Enceladus, show signs of geological activity, though they are largely made of ice.<br />
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Titan is larger than Mercury and the only satellite in the Solar System with a substantial atmosphere.<br />
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Uranus (19.6 AU), at 14 Earth masses, is the lightest of the outer planets. Uniquely among the planets, it orbits the Sun on its side; its axial tilt is over ninety degrees to the ecliptic. It has a much colder core than the other gas giants, and radiates very little heat into space.<br />
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Uranus has twenty-seven known satellites, the largest ones being Titania, Oberon, Umbriel, Ariel and Miranda.<br />
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Neptune (30 AU), though slightly smaller than Uranus, is more massive (equivalent to 17 Earths) and therefore more dense. It radiates more internal heat, but not as much as Jupiter or Saturn.<br />
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Neptune has thirteen known satellites. The largest, Triton, is geologically active, with geysers of liquid nitrogen.<br />
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Triton is the only large satellite with a retrograde orbit. Neptune is accompanied in its orbit by a number of minor planets, termed Neptune Trojans, that are in 1:1 resonance with it.<br />
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Comets are small Solar System bodies, usually only a few kilometres across, composed largely of volatile ices. They have highly eccentric orbits, generally a perihelion within the orbits of the inner planets and an aphelion far beyond Pluto. When a comet enters the inner Solar System, its proximity to the Sun causes its icy surface to sublimate and ionise, creating a coma: a long tail of gas and dust often visible to the naked eye.<br />
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Short-period comets have orbits lasting less than two hundred years. Long-period comets have orbits lasting thousands of years. Short-period comets are believed to originate in the Kuiper belt, while long-period comets, such as Hale-Bopp, are believed to originate in the Oort cloud. Many comet groups, such as the Kreutz Sungrazers, formed from the breakup of a single parent.<br />
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Some comets with hyperbolic orbits may originate outside the Solar System, but determining their precise orbits is difficult.<br />
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Old comets that have had most of their volatiles driven out by solar warming are often categorised as asteroids.<br />
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The area beyond Neptune, or the "trans-Neptunian region," is still largely unexplored. It appears to consist overwhelmingly of small worlds (the largest having a diameter only a fifth that of the Earth and a mass far smaller than that of the Moon) composed mainly of rock and ice. This region is sometimes known as the "outer Solar System," though others use that term to mean the region beyond the asteroid belt.<br />
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The Kuiper belt, the region's first formation, is a great ring of debris similar to the asteroid belt, but composed mainly of ice. It extends between 30 and 50 AU from the Sun. It is composed mainly of small Solar System bodies, but many of the largest Kuiper belt objects, such as Quaoar, Varuna, (136108) 2003 EL61, (136472) 2005 FY9 and Orcus, may be reclassified as dwarf planets. There are estimated to be over 100,000 Kuiper belt objects with a diameter greater than 50 km, but the total mass of the Kuiper belt is thought to be only a tenth or even a hundredth the mass of the Earth.<br />
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Many Kuiper belt objects have multiple satellites, and most have orbits that take them outside the plane of the ecliptic.<br />
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Pluto (39 AU average), a dwarf planet, is the largest known object in the Kuiper belt. When discovered in 1930, it was considered to be the ninth planet; this changed in 2006 with the adoption of a formal definition of planet. Pluto has a relatively eccentric orbit inclined 17 degrees to the ecliptic plane and ranging from 29.7 AU from the Sun at perihelion (within the orbit of Neptune) to 49.5 AU at aphelion.<br />
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It is unclear whether Charon, Pluto's largest moon, will continue to be classified as such or as a dwarf planet itself. Both Pluto and Charon orbit a barycenter of gravity above their surfaces, making Pluto-Charon a binary system. Two much smaller moons, Nix and Hydra, orbit Pluto and Charon.<br />
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Pluto lies in the resonant belt and has a 3:2 resonance with Neptune, meaning that Pluto orbits twice round the Sun for every three Neptunian orbits. Kuiper belt objects whose orbits share this resonance are called plutinos.<br />
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[Time-lapse photography of the course of a swinging pendulum]<br />
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Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point. The oscillations may be periodic such as the motion of a pendulum or random such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road.<br />
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Vibration can be "desirable." For example the motion of a tuning fork, the reed in a woodwind instrument or harmonica, or the cone of a loudspeaker is desirable vibration, necessary for the correct functioning of the various devices.<br />
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Vibration can also be "undesirable," wasting energy and creating unwanted sound -- "noise." For example, the vibrational motions of engines, electric motors, or any mechanical device in operation are typically unwanted. Such vibrations can be caused by imbalances in the rotating parts, uneven friction, the meshing of gear teeth, etc. Careful designs usually minimize unwanted vibrations.<br />
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The study of sound and vibration are closely related. Sound, or "pressure waves," are generated by vibrating structures (e.g. vocal cords); these pressure waves can also induce the vibration of structures (e.g. ear drum).<br />
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[1981 Earth / 1980 Solar System / 1970 Universe]Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.comtag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6306452172785887549.post-86870222492978951341970-01-01T01:00:00.001-08:002021-01-21T19:10:54.591-08:00The Universe (c. 13,730,000,000 BC) - Waves<br />
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The Universe is most commonly defined as everything that physically exists: the entirety of space and time, all forms of matter, energy and momentum, and the physical laws and constants that govern them. However, the term "universe" may be used in slightly different contextual senses, denoting such concepts as the cosmos, the world or Nature.<br />
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[A little image of the Big Bang]<br />
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[Richard Strauss (1864-1949)<br />
<span style="font-style: italic;">Also Sprach Zarathustra (Thus Spake Zarathustra)</span>I. Einleitung (Introduction) (Sunrise) (1896)]<br />
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Astronomical observations indicate that the universe is at least 13.73 ± 0.12 billion years old and at least 93 billion light years across. The event that started the universe is called the Big Bang. At this point in time all matter and energy of the observable universe was concentrated in one point of infinite density. After the Big Bang the universe started to expand to its present form. Since special relativity states that matter cannot exceed the speed of light in a fixed space-time, it may seem paradoxical that two galaxies can be separated by 93 billion light years in 13 billion years; however, this separation is a natural consequence of general relativity. Stated simply, space can expand with no intrinsic limit on its rate; thus, two galaxies can separate more quickly than the speed of light if the space between them grows. Experimental measurements such as the redshifts and spatial distribution of distant galaxies, the cosmic microwave background radiation, and the relative percentages of the lighter chemical elements, support this theoretical expansion and, more generally, the Big Bang theory, which proposes that space itself was created ex nihilo at a specific time in the past. Recent observations have shown that this expansion is accelerating, and that most of the matter and energy in the universe is fundamentally different from that observed on Earth and not directly observable (cf. dark energy). The imprecision of current observations has hindered predictions of the ultimate fate of the universe.<br />
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Experiments suggest that the universe has been governed by the same physical laws and constants throughout its extent and history. The dominant force at cosmological distances is gravity, and general relativity is currently the most accurate theory of gravitation. The remaining three fundamental forces and the particles on which they act are described by the Standard Model.<br />
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The universe has at least three dimensions of space and one of time, although extremely small additional dimensions cannot be ruled out experimentally. Spacetime appears to be smoothly and simply connected, and space has very small mean curvature, so that Euclidean geometry is accurate on the average throughout the universe.<br />
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According to some speculations, this universe may be one of many disconnected universes, which are collectively denoted as the multiverse. In one theory, there is an infinite variety of universes, each with different physical constants. In another theory, new universes are spawned with every quantum measurement. By definition, these speculations cannot currently be tested experimentally.<br />
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Throughout recorded history, several cosmologies and cosmogonies have been proposed to account for observations of the universe. The earliest quantitative models were developed by the ancient Greeks, who proposed that the universe possesses infinite space and has existed eternally, but contains a single set of concentric spheres of finite size - corresponding to the fixed stars, the Sun and various planets - rotating about a spherical but unmoving Earth. Over the centuries, more precise observations and improved theories of gravity led to Copernicus' heliocentric model and the Newtonian model of the solar system, respectively. Further improvements in astronomy led to the characterization of the Milky Way, and the discovery of other galaxies and the microwave background radiation; careful studies of the distribution of these galaxies and their spectral lines have led to much of modern cosmology.<br />
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A wave is a disturbance that propagates through space and time, usually with transference of energy. While a mechanical wave exists in a medium (which on deformation is capable of producing elastic restoring forces), waves of electromagnetic radiation (and probably gravitational radiation) can travel through vacuum, that is, without a medium. Waves travel and transfer energy from one point to another, often with little or no permanent displacement of the particles of the medium (that is, with little or no associated mass transport); instead there are oscillations around almost fixed positions.<br />
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The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all possible electromagnetic radiation.<br />
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The "electromagnetic spectrum" (usually just spectrum) of an object is the characteristic distribution of electromagnetic radiation from that particular object.<br />
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The electromagnetic spectrum extends from below the frequencies used for modern radio (at the long-wavelength end) through gamma radiation (at the short-wavelength end), covering wavelengths from thousands of kilometres down to a fraction the size of an atom. It's thought that the short wavelength limit is in the vicinity of the Planck length, and the long wavelength limit is the size of the universe itself (see physical cosmology), although in principle the spectrum is infinite and continuous.<br />
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Radio waves generally are utilized by antennas of appropriate size (according to the principle of resonance), with wavelengths ranging from hundreds of meters to about one millimeter. They are used for transmission of data, via modulation. Television, mobile phones, MRI, wireless networking and amateur radio all use radio waves.<br />
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Radio waves can be made to carry information by varying a combination of the amplitude, frequency and phase of the wave within a frequency band and the use of the radio spectrum is regulated by many governments through frequency allocation. When EM radiation impinges upon a conductor, it couples to the conductor, travels along it, and induces an electric current on the surface of that conductor by exciting the electrons of the conducting material. This effect (the skin effect) is used in antennas. EM radiation may also cause certain molecules to absorb energy and thus to heat up, thus causing thermal effects and sometimes burns; this is exploited in microwave ovens<br />
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[1980 Solar System / 1970 Universe]Mark Alburgerhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07603011736512071903noreply@blogger.com