Islam in Indonesia (c. 1200) - Java - Court Music

Java (Indonesian: Jawa) is an island of Indonesia and the site of its capital city, Jakarta. Once the centre of powerful Hindu kingdoms and the core of the colonial Dutch East Indies, Java now plays a dominant role in the economic and political life of Indonesia. Housing a population of 130 million in 2006 it is the most populous island in the world, ahead of the nation of Japan. Java is also one of the most densely populated regions on Earth.



Formed mostly as the result of volcanic events, Java is the 13th largest island in the world and the fifth largest island in Indonesia. A chain of volcanic mountains forms an east-west spine along the island. It has three main languages, and most residents are bilingual, with Indonesian as their second language. While the majority of Javanese are Muslim, Java has a diverse mixture of religious beliefs and cultures.

The origins of the name 'Java' are not clear. One possibility is early travellers from India named the island after the jáwa-wut plant, which was said to be common in the island during the time, and that prior to Indianization the island had different names. There are other possible sources: the word jaú and its variations mean "beyond" or "distant." And, in Sanskrit yava means barley, a plant for which the island was famous. Other source states that the "java" word is derived from a Proto-Austronesian root word, meaning "home."

Outsiders often referred to Java and the neighboring islands by the same name, or use names inconsistently for different islands. For example, Marco Polo refers to neighbouring Sumatra as "little Java" and Ptolemy refers to Sumatra as Jaba-diu.



Islam spread into the Indonesian archipelago, including Java, in the thirteenth century. At the time, the Wali Songo (the "nine ambassadors") were the most prominent Muslim evangelists in the region. The spread of Islam (1200–1600) took place first in coastal cities, which developed into Muslim states, such as Sultanate of Demak (1475–1518) and Mataram Sultanate (1500s–1700s).



The music of Java embraces a wide variety of styles, both traditional and contemporary, reflecting the diversity of the island and its lengthy history. Apart from "traditional" forms which maintain connections to musical styles many centuries old, there are also many unique styles and conventions which combine elements from many other regional influences, including those of neighbouring Asian cultures and European colonial forms.



The gamelan orchestra, based on metallic percussion with winds and drums, is perhaps the form which is most readily identified as being distinctly "Javanese" by outsiders. In various forms, it is ubiquitous to Southeast Asia. In Java, the full gamelan also adds a bowed string instrument (the rebab, a name illustrative of Islamic influence) and voices. The rebab is one of the main melodic instruments of the ensemble (together with the xylophone "gendér") and is often played by the senior musician. Voices consist of male and female choruses, together with soloists; however, the voices are not usually featured in court gamelan (as opposed to wayang kulit, shadow puppet theatre) and are supposed to be heard discreetly in the middle of the orchestral sound. In these abstract pieces, the words are largely secondary to the music itself.



The Special Region of Yogyakarta is the smallest province of Indonesia (excluding Jakarta). It is located on the island of Java. It is the only province in Indonesia that is still formally governed by a precolonial Sultanate, the Sultanate of Ngayogyakarta Hadiningrat.

The city of Yogyakarta is the capital of the province.

Yogyakarta is located in south-central Java. It is surrounded by the province of Central Java (Jawa Tengah) and the Indian Ocean in the south. The city is located at 7°47′S, 110°22′E.
The population ub 2003 was approximately 3,000,000. The province of Yogyakarta has a total area of 3,185.80 km². Yogyakarta has the second-smallest area of the provinces in Indonesia, after the Jakarta Capital Region. However it has, along with adjacent areas in Central Java, some of the highest population densities of Java.

Located within the Yogyakarta province, Yogyakarta city is known as a center of classical Javanese fine art and culture such as batik, ballet, drama, music, poetry and puppet shows. It is also famous as a center for Indonesian higher education. At Yogyakarta's center is the kraton, or Sultan's palace. While the city sprawls in all directions from the kraton, the core of the modern city is to the north.



Indonesia - Java - Court Music





[8201 Thibaut of Navarre / 8200 Java Dance / 8200 Ghana Polyrhythms]

Ghana to Ghana (c. 1200) - Polyrhythms

"Ghana" means "Warrior King," and was the source of the name "Guinea" (via French Guinoye) to refer to the West African coast (as in Gulf of...).

Ghana was inhabited in pre-colonial times by a number of ancient kingdoms, including the Ga Adangbes on the eastern coast, inland Empire of Ashanti, and various Fante states along the coast and inland.

The Ashanti or Asante are a major ethnic group in Ghana. They were a powerful, militaristic, and highly disciplined people of West Africa.


[Ghana (or Wagadou) Empire, c. 750-1076, located in what is now southeastern Mauritania, Western Mali, and Eastern Senegal -- not to be confused with the later region now known as Ghana, which shares no territory with the earlier entity.]

The ancient Ashanti migrated from the vicinity of the northwestern Niger River after the fall of the Ghana Empire in the 1200's. Evidence of this lies in the royal courts of the Akan kings reflected by that of the Ashanti kings whose processions and ceremonies show remnants of ancient Ghana ceremonies. Ethno linguists have substantiated the migration by tracing word usage and speech patterns along West Africa.


[Akosombo Dam in southeastern Ghana, at the Akosombo gorge, on the Volta River]

Around the 13th century AD, the Ashanti and various other Akan peoples migrated into the forest belt of present-day Ghana and established small states in the hilly country around present-day Kumasi.



[Elephant near Ndutu, near Ngorongo Crater, Olduvai Gorge, and the Serengeti (Tanzania)]

Ghana - Elephant Ear Drums





Polyrhythm is the simultaneous sounding of two or more independent rhythms. Polyrhythms can be distinguished from irrational rhythms, which can occur within the context of a single part; polyrhythms require at least two rhythms to be played concurrently, one of which is typically an irrational rhythm.

A simple example of a polyrhythm is 3 evenly-spaced notes against 2, with the 3-beat pattern being faster than the 2-beat pattern, so that they both take the same amount of time. Other simple polyrhythms are 5-2, 5-4, etc. Where one of the parts involves an irrational rhythm, the resulting rhythm could be said to be an "irrational polyrhythm."

Another form of polyrhythm, which might also be termed polymeter, would be phrasing to suggest a different meter than the one being played by the rest of the ensemble. A common example of this would be phrasing quarter notes in groupings of 3 to suggest 3/4 time while the ensemble plays in 4/4.



[Takada drumming of the Ewe people of the island town of Anyako off the coast of Southeastern Ghana]

Traditional African music, particularly that of West Africa, is known for its highly complex polyrhythms, often with downbeats that do not usually coincide. Rhythms and counter rhythms evidence the common African cultural tradition of call and response, with different drum lines, other musical instruments, bodies and voices contributing rhythmic elements that complement and communicate with one another.



The Ewe have developed a complex culture around drumming. Ewe believe that if someone is a good drummer, it is because they inherited a spirit of an ancestor who was a good drummer. Music and dance are a force in cementing social feeling among members of an Agbekor society.

In general, Ewe drums are constructed like barrels with wooden staves and metal rings. It is also possible to obtain fine drums that are carved from a single block of wood. They are played with sticks and hands, and often fulfill roles that are traditional to the family. The 'child' or 'baby brother' drum, kagan, usually plays on the weak beats in a repeated pattern that links directly with the bell and shaker ostinatos. The 'mother' drum, kidi, usually has a more active role in the accompaniment. It responds to the larger sogo or 'father' drum. The entire ensemble is led by the atsimevu or 'grandfather' drum, largest of the group.

Lyrical songs are more prevalent in the southern region. In the north, flutes and drums generally take the place of the singer's voice.



The Dagomba are a people of Northern Ghana. They inhabit the sparse West African savanna region below the Sahel belt, known as the Sudan (not to be confused with the country). They speak the Dagbani language which belongs to the More-Dagbani sub-group of Gur languages. The More/Mossi now have their homeland in present day Burkina Faso, while the Dagbani sub-group today has broken up into three ethnic groups: The Dagbamba, the Mamprusi and the Nanumba. Even though these groups today constitute three apparently distinct ethnic groups, their people still identify with each other and the bond is strongest among the Dagbamba and Nanumba. The homeland of the Dagbamba is called Dagbon and covers about 8,000 sq. miles in area and has a total population of about 650, 000. The area constitutes seven administrative districts in present day Ghana. These are Tamale Municipality, Tolon/Kumbungu, Savelugu/Nantong, Yendi, Gushegu/Karaga, Zabzugu/Tatali and Saboba/Cheriponi. The overlord the Dagbon Traditional Kingdom is the Ya- Na, whose court and administrative capital is at Yendi. Yendi is reputed to be the largest village in West Africa. The Dagbon Kingdom has traditional administrative responsibilities for hitherto acephalous groups like the Konkomba, the Bimoba, the Chekosi, the Basaari, the Chamba, and the Zantasi. Though ethnic Dagbamba are in the majority, the people of the subject ethnic groups have equal citizenship rights in the Kingdom. The seat of the Ya Na literally translated as King of Absolute Power, is a collection of cow skins. Thus when we talk of the political history of Dagbon, we often refer to it as the Yendi Skin.



Na Gbewaa is regarded as the founder of Greater Dagbon (Present day Dagbon, Mamprugu and Nanung). Lacking in a writing culture, Dagbamba are one of the cultural groups with a very sophisticated oral culture woven around drums and other musical instruments. Thus most of its history, until quite recently, has been based on oral tradition with drummers as professional historians.

Dagomba - Talking Drum in Ensemble





[8200 Java / 8200 Ghana Polyrhythms / 8200 Fulani Nigeria]

Entrance of the Fulani into Nigeria (c. 1200)

The Fulani (or Fulbe) began to enter the Hausa country of northern Nigeria in the 13th century and by the 15th century they were tending cattle, sheep, and goats in Borno as well. The Fulani came from the Senegal River valley, where their ancestors had developed a method of livestock management based on transhumance.

Transhumance is a term with two accepted usages:

Older sources use transhumance for vertical seasonal livestock movement, typically to higher pastures in summer and to lower valleys in winter. Herders have a permanent home, typically in valleys. Only herds and a subset of people necessary to tend them travel. This is termed fixed transhumance below.

Some recent studies consider nomadism a form of transhumance, in that livestock move to find available plants for grazing over considerable distances following set seasonal patterns trailed by a whole family of herders living in temporary or moveable shelters. This is termed nomadic transhumance below.

Traditional or fixed transhumance occurs throughout the world, including Scandinavia, Caucasus, Morocco, France, Italy, Lebanon, Romania, Bulgaria, Greece, Spain, Turkey, Macedonia, India, Switzerland, Georgia and Lesotho. It is also practised among more nomadic Sami people of Scandinavia. It is often of high importance to pastoralist societies, the dairy products of transhumance flocks and herds (milk, butter, yoghurt and cheese) often forming much of the diet of such populations.



Gradually the Fulani moved eastward, first into the centers of the Mali and Songhai empires and eventually into Hausaland and Borno. Some Fulani converted to Islam as early as the 11th century and settled among the Hausa, from whom they became racially indistinguishable. There they constituted a devoutly religious, educated elite who made themselves indispensable to the Hausa kings as government advisers, Islamic judges, and teachers.



The Wodaabe (or Bororo) are a small subgroup of the Fulani ethnic group. They are traditionally nomadic cattle-herders and traders in the Sahel, with migrations stretching from southern Niger, through northern Nigeria, northeastern Cameroon, and the western region of the Central African Republic.

The number of Wodaabe was estimated in 1983 to be 45,000.

They are known for their beauty (both men and women), elaborate attire and rich cultural ceremonies.

The Wodaabe speak the Fula language and don't use a written language.

In the Fula language, woɗa means "taboo," and Woɗaaɓe means "people of the taboo."

The Wodaabe culture is one of the 186 cultures of the standard cross-cultural sample used by anthropologists to compare cultural traits.



Fulani - Busy Day





[8200 Ghana Polyrhythms / 8200 Fulani / 8200 Kallawaya Boliva]

Kallawaya People of Bolivia (c. 1200)

The Kallawaya people are an itinerant group of healers living in



the Andes of



Bolivia,



South America.



They live in the Bautista Saavedra region,




a mountainous area north of La Paz.

They are members of the Mollo Culture and are direct descendants of Tihuanacu culture.

According to the UNESCO Safeguarding Project, the Kallawaya can be traced to the pre-Inca period.

***

The Inca civilization began as a tribe in the Cusco area, where the legendary first Sapa Inca, Manco Capac founded the Kingdom of Cusco around 1200.

Under the leadership of the descendants of Manco Capac, the state grew as it absorbed other Andean communities at that time. It was in 1442, when the Incas began a far reaching expansion under the command of Pachacutec, whose name literally meant earth-shaker. He formed the Inca empire (Tawantinsuyu), that would become the largest empire in pre-Columbian America.

***

Kallawaya doctors ("médicos Kallawaya"), are known as the naturopathic healers of Inca kings,[ and as keepers of science knowledge, principally the pharmaceutical properties of vegetables, animals and minerals.

Most Kallawaya healers understand how to use 300 herbs, while specialists are familiar with 600 herbs. Kallawaya women are often midwives, treat gynecological disorders, and pediatric patients.

Kallawaya healers travel through northwestern Bolivia and parts of Argentina, Chile, Ecuador, Panama, and Peru. Often they are on foot, walking ancient Inca trails, through the tropics, mountain valleys and highland plateaus, while looking for traditional herbs.

Prior to leaving their homes to heal the sick, the Kallawayas perform a ceremonial dance. The dance and costumary are expressed as the "yatiri," or healer. The choreography is noted for the "llantucha" of "suri,",clothing made of ostrich feathers and used as protection against the elements while they travel to their patients, carrying "khapchos" or "male" bags that contain herbs, mixes, and talismans.



Groups of musicians, "kantus" play drums and



pan flutes during the ritual ceremonies to establish contact with the spirit world before the healer visits patients.

The language of their trade is the Kallawaya language, a language encoded with medicinal knowledge, a secret language of the Incas (machay jucay).

For general conversation, they speak the more common Quechua language.

Bolivia - K'antu - Kutirimunapaq (So That We Can Return)



strong rhythms reinforced by drum
melodies are based on five-note (pentatonic) scales
hocketing distributes parts of a melody to different players
k’antu, the melody is “shared” between two groups of panpipes players
bamboo panpipes (phukuna, or zampoña in Spanish)
large double-headed drums (wankara)
triangle (ch’inisku)

K’antu music is a type of ceremonial panpipe music from the altiplano (high plateau of the southern Andes mountains), in this case of the Kallawaya . The strong rhythmic character of the music is shaped by its dance function. The panpipes and their rhythmic, but simple, melodies performed at different pitch levels in parallel fashion, in a hocketing performance practice, characterize the selection and give the music its unique sound.

Kutirimunapaq features accelerados and beat cycles reminiscent of Japanese and Indonesian music.



[8200 Fulani Nigeria / 8200 Kallaway Boliva / 8182 Thibaut de Blason]